CEYLON

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISLAND

PHYSICAL, HISTORICAL, AND TOPOGRAPHICAL

WITH

NOTICES OF ITS NATURAL HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES AND PRODUCTIONS

BY

SIR JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c.

ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS, PLANS AND DRAWINGS

FOURTH EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED

VOLUME I.

LONDON

1860

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CONTENTS

OF

THE FIRST VOLUME.

PART I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.

GEOLOGY.—MINERALOGY.—GEMS.

• I. General Aspect.
• • Singular beauty of the island 3
  • Its ancient renown in consequence 4
  • Fable of its "perfumed winds" (note) 4
  • Character of the scenery 5
• II. Geographical Position 6
• • Ancient views regarding it amongst the Hindus,—"the Meridian of Lanka" 6
  • Buddhist traditions of former submersions (note) 7
  • Errors as to the dimensions of Ceylon 8
  • Opinions of Onesicritus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, Agathemerus 8, 9
  • The Arabian geographers 9
  • Sumatra supposed to be Ceylon (note) 10
  • True latitude and longitude 11
  • General Eraser's map of Ceylon (note) 11
  • Geological formation 12
  • Adam's Bridge 13
  • Error of supposing Ceylon to be a detached fragment of India 14
• III. The Mountain System 14
• • Remarkable hills, Mihintala and Sigiri 15
  • Little evidence of volcanic action 16
  • Rocks, gneiss 16
  • Rock temples 17
  • Laterite or "Cabook" 17
  • Ancient name Tamba-panni (note) 17
  • Coral formation 19
  • Extraordinary wells 21
  • Darwin's theory of coral wells examined (note) 22
  • The soil of Ceylon generally poor 24
  • "Patenas," their phenomena obscure 24
  • Rice lands between the hills 26
  • Soil of the plains, "Talawas" 27
• IV. Metals.—Tin 29
• • Gold, nickel, cobalt 29
  • Quicksilver (note) 29
  • Iron 30
• V. Minerals.—Anthracite, plumbago, kaolin, nitre caves 31
• • List of Ceylon minerals (note) 32

VI. Gems, ancient fame of 32

• Rose-coloured quartz (note) 33
• Mode of searching for gems 34
• Rubies 34
• Sapphire, topaz, garnet, and cinnamon stone, cat's-eye, amethyst, moonstone 37, 38
• Diamond not found in Ceylon (note) 38
• Gem-finders and lapidaries 39

VII. Rivers.—Their character 40

• The Mahawelli-ganga 41
• Table of the rivers 41

VIII. Singular coast formation, and its causes 43

• The currents and their influence 44
• Word "Gobb" explained (note) 46
• Vegetation of the sand formations 48
• Their suitability for the coconut 51

IX. Harbours.—Galle and Trincomalie 52

• Tides 52
• Red infusoria 53
• Population of Ceylon 53

CHAP. II.

CLIMATE.—HEALTH AND DISEASE.

• Uniformity of temperature 54
• Brilliancy of foliage 56
• Colombo.—January—long shore wind 56
• February—cold nights (note) 57
• March, April 58
• May—S.W. monsoon 58
• • Aspect of the country before it 59
  • Lightning 60
  • Rain, its violence 61
• June 62
• July and August, September, October, November. N.E. monsoon 63
• December 64
• Annual quantity of rain in Ceylon and Hindustan (note) 65
• Opposite climates of the same mountain 66
• Climate of Galle 67
• Kandy and its climate 67
• • Mists and hail 69
• Climate of Trincomalie (text and note) 70
• Jaffna and its climate 71
• Waterspouts 72
• Anthelia 73
• Buddha rays

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Ceylon as a sanatarium.—Neuera-ellia 74

• Health 75
• Malaria 75
• Food and wine 76, 77
• Effects of the climate of Ceylon on disease 79
• Precautions for health 80

CHAP. III

VEGETATION.—TREES AND PLANTS.

• The Flora of Ceylon imperfectly known 83
• Vegetation similar to that of India and the Eastern Archipelago 84
• Trees of the sea-borde.—Mangroves—Screw-pines, Sonneratia 85
• The Northern Plains.—Euphorbiæ Cassia.—Mustard-tree of Scripture 87
• Western coast.—Luxurious vegetation 87
• Eastern coast 88
• Pitcher plant.—Orchids 88
• Vines 89
• Botany of the Mountains.—Iron-wood, Bamboo, European fruit-trees 90
• • Tea-plant—Rhododendron—Mickelia 90
  • Rapid disappearance of dead trees in the forests 91
  • Trees with natural buttresses 91
• Flowering Trees.—Coral tree 92
• • The Murutu—Imbul—Cotton tree—Champac 93
  • The Upas Tree—Poisons of Ceylon 95
  • The Banyan 95
  • The Sacred Bo-tree 97
  • The India Rubber-tree—The Snake-tree 98
  • Kumbuk-tree: lime in its bark 99
• Curious Seeds.—The Dorian, Sterculia foetida 100
  • The Sea Pomegranate 100
  • Strychnos, curious belief as to its poison 101
• Euphorbia—The Cow-tree, error regarding (note) 101
• Climbing plants, Epiphytes, and flowering creepers 102
• Orchids—Brilliant terrestrial orchid, the Wanna-raja.—Square-stemmed Vine 103
• Gigantic climbing Plants 104
  • Enormous bean 105
  • Bonduc seeds.—Ratans—Ratan bridges 106
• Thorny Trees.—Raised as a natural fortification by the Kandyans 107
  • The buffalo thorn, Acacia tomentosa 108
• Palms 109
  • Coco-nut—Talipat 110
  • Palmyra 111
  • Jaggery Palm—Arcea Palm

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Betel-chewing, its theory and uses 112

• Pingos 114

Timber Trees 115

• Jakwood—Del—Teak 116
• Suria 117

Cabinet Woods.—Satin-wood—Ebony—Cadooberia 117

• Calamander, its rarity and beauty 118
• Tamarind 119

Fruit-trees 119

• Remarkable power of trees to generate cold and keep their fruit chill 121

Aquatic Plants—Lotus, red and blue 123

• Desmanthus natans, an aquatic sensitive plant 123

PART II.

ZOOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

MAMMALIA.

• Neglect of Zoology in Ceylon 127
• Monkeys 128
• • Wanderoo 129
  • Error regarding the Silenus Veter (note) 129
  • Presbytes Cephalopterus 130
  • P. Ursinus in the Hills 131
  • P. Thersites in the Wanny 132
  • P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie 132
  • No dead monkey ever found 133
• Loris 133
• Bats 135
• • Flying fox 135
  • Horse-shoe bat 136
• Carnivora.—Bears 137
• Their ferocity 138
• Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (note) 139
• Leopards 139
• • Curious belief 140
  • Anecdotes of leopards 142
• Palm-cat 144
• Civet 144
• Dogs 144
• Jackal 145
• • The horn of the jackal 145
• Mungoos 145
• • Its fights with serpents 146
  • Theory of its antidote 147
• Squirrels 148
• • Flying squirrel 148
• Tree rat

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• Story of a rat and a snake 149

Coffee rat 149

Bandicoot 150

Porcupine 150

Pengolin 151

Ruminantia.—The Gaur 151

• Oxen 152
• Humped cattle 152
• Encounter of a cow and a leopard 153
• Buffaloes 154
• Sporting buffaloes 155
• Peculiar structure of the hoof 155

Deer 156

Meminna 157

Elephants 158

Whales 158

General view of the mammalia of Ceylon 159

List of Ceylon mammalia 159

Curious parasite of the bat (note) 161

CHAP. II.

BIRDS.

• Their numbers 163
• Songsters 163
• Hornbills, the "bird with two heads" 164
• Pea fowl 165
• Sea birds, their number 165
• I. Accipitres.—Eagles 166
• • Falcons and hawks 166
  • Owls—the devil bird 167
• II. Passeres.—Swallows 167
• • Kingfishers—sunbirds 168
  • Bul-bul—tailor bird—and weaver 169
  • Crows, anecdotes of 170
• III. Scansores.—Parroquets 172
• IV. Columbiæ.—Pigeons 173
• V. Gallinæ.—Jungle-fowl 174
• VI. Grallæ.—Ibis, stork, &c. 175
• VII. Anseres.—Flamingoes 175
• • Pelicans 176
  • Game.—Partridges, &c.176
• List of Ceylon birds 177
• List of birds peculiar to Ceylon 180

CHAP. III.

REPTILES.

• Lizards.—Iguana 182
• • Kabragoya, barbarous custom in preparing the cobra-tel poison (note)

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The green calotes 184

Chameleon 184

Ceratophora 185

Geckoes,—their power of reproducing limbs 185, 186

Crocodiles 186

• Their power of burying themselves in the mud 187

Tortoises—Curious parasite 188

• Land tortoises 189
• Edible turtle 190
• Huge Indian tortoises (note) 190
• Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the tortoise-shell 190

Serpents.—Venomous species rare 191

• Cobra de capello 192
• Instance of land snakes found at sea 193
• Tame snakes (note) 193
• Singular tradition regarding the cobra de capello 194
• Uropeltidæ.—New species discovered in Ceylon 195
• Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello 195
• Anecdotes of snakes 196
• The Python 196
• Water snakes 197
• Snake stones 197
• Analysis of one 199
• Cæcilia 201
• Large frogs 202
• Tree frogs 202

List of Ceylon reptiles 203

CHAP. IV.

FISHES.

• Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known 205
• Fish for table, seir fish 205
• Sardines, poisonous? 206
• Sharks 207
• Saw-fish 207
• Fish of brilliant colours 207
• Curious fish described by Ælian (note) 207
• Fresh-water fish, little known,—not much eaten 208
• Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake 209
• Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes 209
• Their re-appearance after rain 209
• Mode of fishing in the ponds 210
• Showers of fish 210
• Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable 212
• Fish moving on dry land

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• Instances in Guiana (note) 214
• Perca Scandens, ascends trees 215
• Doubts as to the story of Daldorf 217

Fishes burying themselves during the dry season 218

• The protopterus of the Gambia 218
• Instances in the fish of the Nile 218
• Instances in the fish of South America 219
• Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon 220
• Other animals that so bury themselves, Melaniæ, Ampullariæ, &c. 220
• The animals that so bury themselves in India (note) 220
• Analogous case of (note) 221
• Theory of æstivation and hybernation 221

Fish in hot-water in Ceylon 224

List of Ceylon fishes 224

Instances of fishes failing from the clouds 226

Overland migration of fishes known to the Greeks and Romans 227

Note on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley 229

Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus.231

CHAP. V.

MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHÆ.

• I. Conchology—General character of Ceylon shells 233
• • Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections 234
  • List of Ceylon shells 235
• II. Radiata.—Star fish 244
• • Sea slugs 245
  • Parasitic worms 245
  • Planaria 235
• III. Acalephæ, abundant 246
• • Corals little known 246

CHAP. VI.

INSECTS.

• Profusion of insects in Ceylon 247
• • Imperfect knowledge of 247
• I. Coleoptera.—Beetles 248
• • Scavenger beetles 249
  • Coco-nut beetles 249
  • Tortoise beetles 250
• II. Orthoptera.—Mantis and leaf-insects 250
• • Stick-insects 252
• III. Neuroptera—Dragon flies 252
• • Ant-lion 252
  • White ants 253
  • Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages (text and note)

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V. Hymenoptera.—Mason Wasps 256

• Wasps 257
• Bees 257
• Carpenter Bee 258
• Ants 258
• Burrowing ants 262

VI. Lepidoptera.—Butterflies 262

• Sylph 263
• Lycænidæ 264
• Moths 265
• Silk worms (text and note) 265
• Wood-carrying Moths 266
• Pterophorus 267

VII. Homoptera 267

• Cicada 267

VIII. Hemiptera 267

• Bugs 267

IX. Aphaniptera 268

X. Diptera.—Mosquitoes 268

General character of Ceylon insects 269

List of insects in Ceylon 274

CHAP. VII.

ARACHNIDE, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACEA, ETC.

• Spiders 294
• • Strange nests of the wood spiders 295
  • Olios Taprobanius 295
  • Mygale fasciata 295
  • Ticks 296
  • Mites.—Trombidium tinctorum 297
• Myriapods.—Centipedes 297
• • Cermatia 298
  • Scolopendra crassa 298
  • S. pollipes 299
• Millipeds—Iulus 299
• Crustacea 300
• • Calling crabs 300
  • Land crabs 301
  • Painted crabs 301
  • Paddling crabs 301
• Annelidæ, Leeches.—The land leech 302
• • Medical leech 305
  • Cattle leech 306
• List of Articulata, &c.307

PART III.

THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.

CHAPTER I.

SOURCES OF SINGHALESE HISTORY—THE MAHAWANSO.

• Ceylon formerly thought to have no authentic history

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Researches of Turnour 312

Biographical sketch of Turnour (note) 312

The Mahawanso 314

Recovery of the "tika" on the Mahawanso 315

Outline of the Mahawanso 315

Turnour's epitome of Singhalese history 316

Historical proofs of the Mahawanso 317

Identity of Sandracottus and Chandragupta 318

Ancient map of Ceylon (note) 318

List of Ceylon sovereigns 320

CHAP. II.

THE ABORIGINES.

• Singhalese histories all illustrative of Buddhism 325
• A Buddha 325
• Gotama Buddha, his history 326
• Amazing prevalence of his religion (note) 326
• His three visits to Ceylon 327
• Inhabitants of the island at that time supposed to be of Malayan type 327
• Legend of their Chinese origin 328
• Probably identical with the aborigines of the Dekkan 328
• Common basis of their language 328
• Characteristics of vernacular Singhalese 329
• State of the aborigines before Wijayo's invasion 330
• Story of Wijayo 330
• The natives of Ceylon described as Yakkos and Nagas 331
• Traces of serpent-worship in Ceylon 331
• Coincidence of the Mahawanso with the Odyssey (note) 332

CHAP. III.

CONQUEST OF WIJAYO, B.C. 543.—ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM, B.C. 307.

• Early commerce of Ceylon described by the Chinese 335
• Wijayo as a colonizer 336
• His treatment of the native population 336
• B.C. 505. His death and successors 336
• A number of petty kingdoms formed 337
• Ceylon divided into three districts: Pihiti, Rohuna, and Maya 337
• The village system established 337
• Agriculture introduced 338
• Irrigation imported from India 338
• The first tank constructed, B.C. 504 (note) 338
• Rapid progress of the island 339
• Toleration of Wijayo and his followers 339
• Establishment of Buddhism, 307 B.C. 340
• Preaching of Mahindo 340
• Planting of the sacred Bo-tree

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