PAPERS
OF THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND
ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Vol. VII
HISTORY OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST
OF YUCATAN AND OF
THE ITZAS
BY
PHILIP AINSWORTH MEANS
Cambridge, Mass.
Published by the Museum
1917
Copyright, 1917,
By the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and
Ethnology, Harvard University
THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
ERRATA
Substitute the accompanying page for the preliminary Note on Page iii. Page 25. For the last two lines read "Cozumel. They also visited las Mugers which takes its name from the female idols found there by the Spaniards. This." Page 58, note. For "may be" read "was." Page 104, line 2 and elsewhere. For "Arumendi" read "Arismendi." Page 180, line 30. For "was destroyed" read "were devastated."
NOTE
This Paper is the result of work carried on by Mr. Means as a graduate student in the Division of Anthropology during the years 1915-1917. It consists mainly of translations of early Spanish books and manuscripts.
It is gratifying to note that this is the first publication by the Museum based upon the large collection of photographic reproductions of early manuscripts from Mexico and Central America brought together by Professor W. E. Gates of Point Loma, California, and presented to the Museum by Mr. Charles P. Bowditch. Among these manuscripts is Avendaño's account of his journey to Peten, the greater part of which is included in the present paper. The original of this manuscript is in the British Museum. Cano's account of a trip to Guatemala is also given here. This manuscript is in the Brinton Collection at the University of Pennsylvania. It is through the kindness of Dr. George B. Gordon, Director of that Museum, and of Miss Adela C. Breton, who copied the manuscript, that it is possible to publish it at this time. The Avendaño and the Cano manuscripts were translated by Mr. Bowditch and Señor G. Rivera.
CHARLES C. WILLOUGHBY Director
INTRODUCTION
In the library of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University there is an invaluable collection of photographs of old manuscripts relating to Middle America. These photographs, made by Professor William E. Gates of Point Loma, California, were given to the Peabody Museum by Charles P. Bowditch, Esq., of Boston. One of the volumes contains a photographic reproduction of an original manuscript entitled Relación de las dos Entradas que hizé a Peten Ytza. The author, Fray Andrés de Avendaño y Loyola, of the Order of Saint Francis, will receive much of our attention later. Fortunately Mr. Bowditch and Sr. Guillermo Rivera have deciphered and translated the crabbed old text, so that we have at hand an account of the subjection of the Itzas of Tayasal, or Peten Itza, which is not only invaluable as being the work of an eyewitness of that subjection, but which also is filled with a rare charm. It was largely with a view to bringing this old manuscript to the attention of students that Mr. Bowditch and Dr. Tozzer asked me to work it up into a study of the Itzas of Tayasal. At the same time we must not neglect to notice here the translation, made by Mr. Bowditch and Sr. Rivera, of another inedited work on the same subject. I refer to the account by Fray Alonso Cano, which will be of great use to us later.
Though Avendaño and Cano are, so to speak, the prime reasons for the writing of this study, they have been supplemented in no inconsiderable degree by two other early Spanish writers on the history of Yucatan and its people, Diego Cogolludo and Juan de Villagutierre y Sotomayor. A few comments on the works of these two authors will later prove useful to the reader.
Though Villagutierre's Spanish style is far superior to that of such writers as Fernando Montesinos and Antonio de la Calancha, it is, nevertheless, atrocious. Although he wrote about 1700, Villagutierre's style is excessively archaic; his grammatical construction can hardly be called construction at all, so formless and ambiguous is it. Villagutierre never hesitates to write several long sentences without a single main verb between them, nor does he often refrain from going on and on for a page or so without using a period. In the use of capitals he is most whimsical; usually he has them when they are called for, but he has many that are out of place as well.
The style of Cogolludo, on the other hand, is very good, and that, be it noted, despite the fact that Cogolludo wrote prior to 1688. One remarks with considerable surprise that in several cases Villagutierre and Cogolludo use almost the same words. For example, in speaking of the visit which Cortes made to the island of Tayasal, Cogolludo says: "... y aun la ida de Cortes se tuvo por ossadia, y demasiada confianza...." Villagutierre, in the same connection says: "... que lo tenian a grandissima temeridad, y ossadia, y por demasiada confianza...." This is an interesting point, and perhaps it is significant that Cogolludo's book was published in 1688, whereas that of Villagutierre was not brought out until 1701. It is to be noted that Cogolludo, the earlier writer, uses only two epithets, and that Villagutierre, the later writer, uses the same two, plus a new one of his own. I know of two other cases where equally close and significant similarity exists between the two. It is possible, then, that Villagutierre copied (not to say plagiarized) the work of Cogolludo without giving credit for it. But the important point for us in this matter does not concern the personal integrity of Villagutierre. Rather does the importance of the matter lie in this: if Villagutierre was acquainted with the history of Yucatan by Cogolludo to such a degree that he frequently borrowed whole phrases from it, he must have had a very good reason for diverging widely now and again from the version of events given by Cogolludo. Such a reason could only be supplied by the fact that Villagutierre possessed information which he regarded as superior to and more official than that of Cogolludo. Therefore, since in several instances (as in his account of the events leading up to the visit of Cortes to Tayasal) Villagutierre occasionally departs from the footsteps of Cogolludo, we may safely assume that he was at once more critical and better informed than the latter, whom, however, he valued enough to be willing to draw from his work much of his information and even some of his phraseology.
The virtues and defects of Avendaño and of Cano are less subtle; so much so, indeed, that it would be absurd to attempt a criticism of them here. The reader will have ample opportunity to see their qualities for himself in the body of the book.
A word as to the method adopted in translating is in order. In the various passages taken from Cogolludo and Villagutierre I have preserved the spelling and capitalization of proper names that appear in the text. All passages from Avendaño and Cano are from the translations made by Mr. Bowditch and Sr. Rivera.
All the other works used are so well known that comment on them is superfluous.
Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Bowditch and to Dr. Tozzer, both of whom have spent much time and thought in going over
PHILIP AINSWORTH MEANS
February 23, 1917
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE PRE-COLUMBIAN HISTORY OF THE MAYAS
AND OF THE ITZAS, 1445
Migratory period
The Golden Age or Old Empire of the Maya
The Colonization period
Transitional period
Renaissance or League period
The period of the Toltec mercenaries
Disintegration
Note: Cogolludo's account of the early history of the Mayas and of some of their customs
CHAPTER II
THE POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF
THE ITZA STATE DURING THE PERIOD OF 1445-1697
The significance of the Itzas
The location of Peten or Tayasal
Description of Peten and its surroundings
The lake neither rises nor falls
The temples of Tayasal described by Avendaño
The palace of Canek, Chief of the Itzas
The districts of Peten Itza
Extent of the Itza dominion under the Chief Canek
Quincanek
Further information about the region
The Itzas described
CHAPTER III
THE FIRST SPANISH ENTRADAS INTO YUCATAN, 1517-1526
The first Spaniards in Yucatan
Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, 1517
Juan de Grijalva and others, 1518
Cortes in Mexico, 1519
Villagutierre's account of the entrada of Cortes, 1524-1525
Cortes starts for Honduras
Cortes arrives at Izancanac
Description of a large town
The Spaniards suspect treachery
The Indians explain why their town was deserted
Cortes takes leave of them in a friendly spirit
The deer hunt
The army of Cortes proceeds on its way
The lake
They capture an Indian
The Indian is sent to Tayasal
Some Indians come to Cortes from Tayasal
Canek himself comes and is courteously received
Canek hears Mass and promises to put away his idols
Cortes goes to Tayasal with Canek
The Itzas give Cortes news of Olid
Cortes takes leave of Canek, leaving Morzillo
Idols not burnt
Cortes arrives in Honduras
Comparison of Villagutierre with other authorities
Canek's attitude toward Cortes
CHAPTER IV
THE ENTRADA OF FRANCISCO DE MONTEJO AND HIS SON,
AND THE ARRIVAL OF THE FRANCISCANS, 1526-1542
Francisco de Montejo and his son
Montejo's preparations and sacrifices
He sets out
Montejo and his men go along the shore of Yucatan
Description of the campaign
Dávila and Vazquez search vainly for gold in the region of Chetemal
Foundation of Villa Real de Chetemal
Hardships of those who were at Chichen
Continual misfortunes
Chichen Itza and Villa Real both deserted
Dávila goes to Honduras
The Elder Montejo goes to Tabasco in 1535
The Franciscans enter Yucatan, 1535
Renewal of the subjection of Yucatan by Montejo, 1537
Hostility of the Indians
The Elder Montejo's instructions to his son
The Younger Montejo founds Campeche, 1540-1541
Tutul Xiu of Mani offers his aid
Foundation of Merida and of Valladolid, 1542-1543
Bishop Bartolomé de las Casas arrives in Yucatan
CHAPTER V
THE ENTRADA OF PADRES FUENSALIDA AND ORBITA, 1618
The name Canek
Increased power of the Itzas
The mock embassy from Tayasal
The mock embassy considered to be a rebellion
A new period in the history of the Itzas
Fuensalida and Orbita
Preliminaries to the departure of the Padres
Briceño's opposition
The Padres set out
Their route
The journey up the river from Tipu
Arrival at Tipu
Events at the village of Tipu
The friendliness of Carrillo and the Indians
Don Christoval Na, Cacique of the Indians of Tipu
Francisco Cumux goes with an embassy to Canek
Cumux returns from Canek with two chiefs of Tayasal
The two chiefs are cordially received
The Padres prepare to travel to Tayasal
Delays; the Padres' anger
The return to Tipu
All precautions taken, they set out once more
Lake Yaxha is crossed; arrival at Lake Zacpeten
The Padres camp beside Lake Peten
The Padres arrive at Tayasal and are well received
Mass is said
Fuensalida preaches; Orbita destroys an idol
The Padres urge the Itzas to be Christians
They refuse because the appointed time has not come
After a few days the Padres leave Tayasal
CHAPTER VI
THE ENTRADA OF PADRE FRAY DIEGO DELGADO AND THE
EVENTS THAT FOLLOWED, 1621-1624
Delgado travels to the convent of Xecchacan
He is well provided with guides and other Indians
Zaclun
The proposal of Mirones
Mirones and the Governor make an agreement
Mirones raises an army for his entrada
Mirones arrives at Zaclun
The wanton and foolish oppression caused by Mirones
Delgado opposes Mirones
Delgado determines to anticipate Mirones
Delgado's message to Canek
Delgado receives permission from Canek to come to Tayasal
The treachery of the Itzas
Delgado and others are put to death
Mirones sends Ek after Delgado
Revolt of the Indians
An epidemic of apostasy; the third phase of the conquest of the Itzas begins
CHAPTER VII
THE EARLY HISTORY OF GUATEMALA AND THE ENTRADA
FROM THAT COUNTRY, 1694-1695
The Indian tribes of Guatemala
Account of the Cakchiquel and of the Quiché
The government and the cities of the Cakchiquel and of the Quiché
Spanish conquest
Gallegos and Delgado
The Indians are friendly to them
The route taken by the two Padres
Several villages founded
The Dominicans and the Franciscans
Struggles between the Dominicans and the Indians
The inception of the plan to subdue the Itzas, 1689
Soberanis ordered to coöperate
Ursua to succeed Soberanis in office
A letter from Ursua y Arizmendi to the King of the Spains
The King grants all that Ursua asks
President Barrios aids in the undertaking
Arrangements for the entrada; supplies, etc.
The voluntary contributions
Quarrels between Soberanis and the Bishop of Yucatan
President Barrios decides to join the entrada in person
The expedition sets out from Guatemala City
Events at Huehuetenango
Ursua's activities
An army sets out from Yucatan for the Montaña
Padres Cano and Avendaño y Loyola
Cano's account of the entrada from Guatemala
The route followed by Cano
The Chols and the Mopanes
From Mopan to the lake
Cano advises return
Explanations of their withdrawal sent to Guatemala
The decree of the General Assembly
Quarrels among the soldiers and the officials
The writers of the decree punished
CHAPTER VIII
THE FIRST AND UNSUCCESSFUL ATTEMPT MADE BY FRAY ANDRÉS
DE AVENDAÑO Y LOYOLA TO REACH THE ITZAS
OF TAYASAL, 1695-1699
Preamble
Preparations for the journey
The start
Indian singers
Arrival at Cauich
Departure from Cauich
Aguada of Hobon Ox; Chunzalam, Vecanxan
Nohhalal, Th[=a] Ayn, Sucte
Ix Kata-Kal
Nohku
Nohvecan
Hardships suffered by the Padres
Oppol; a bridge built across a river
Tanche
Deserted village of Temchay
Nohpek
Nohthub
Bacechac
Buete
Lack of supplies
Paredes seizes some farms
Fifty-one Indians of Buete surrender
Avendaño argues with Paredes about his plundering
The royal decrees are mentioned by Avendaño
Paredes promises to return the plunder
Paredes fails to keep his word
Tzucthok, once before reduced, had rebelled
The Padres endeavor to instruct the Indians
The captains promise to give warning before fighting
A skirmish
The avarice of Paredes
Chunpich is reached
Zuviaur goes to the Itzas; the Padres return
Further troubles
The Padres determine to get to the Itzas some other way
Letter to the captains
Governor Ursua vexed by the captains' letter
Return to Merida
CHAPTER IX
THE SECOND ENTRADA OF PADRE AVENDAÑO
Orders of the Governor
Departure of Avendaño
The same route followed as before; Batcab is reached
Chuntucí
The hardships of the journey
Approaching the Itzas
Tan Xuluc Mul; temples on a great height
Chakan Itza
The Chakan Itzas
Treatment of the natives
The Padres please other Indians by means of little gifts
The Padres renew their march
Nich
Indians arrive from Tayasal
Bravery of Avendaño
The landing at Tayasal; the idol
At the temple
The Padres read the letters
The curiosity of the Itzas
A baptism performed
Other Caciques arrive
The Caciques in war paint
Avendaño makes inquiries as to their manner of reckoning time
Avendaño explains the prophecies
Objection of Covoh
Discussion with Canek and others
Friendliness of Canek
Demonstrations against Canek
Leniency promised by the Padres
Avendaño takes steps to protect the Itzas from further molestation
The letter of counsel
Before leaving Tayasal, Avendaño shames Covoh
The hatred of the Chakan Itzas for the Padres increases
Canek helps the Padres to escape
Paredes' stupidity; the plot of the Chakan Itzas
The Chakan Itzas are foiled by God
The departure of the Padres from Tayasal
Avendaño goes eastward to Yalain
The Padres suffer hardships and lose their way
Hard travel in the wilderness for fifteen days
Miracle of the bent branch
An uncomfortable night
Great want of food
The situation grows still worse
They find some miraculous honey
Two Padres go ahead
A desperate situation
They find some edible thistles
Some hills are reached
Deserted buildings
False hopes; further hardships
They face starvation
A sign from our Lady of the Apparition
They climb some high hills
Avendaño left alone
The miracle of the sapote
Rescued
What had happened to the Indians whom Avendaño sent off
The messenger from Tayasal
Reasons for Avendaño's distrust
CHAPTER X
THE CONSUMMATION OF THE CONQUEST OF TAYASAL
BY THE SPANIARDS, 1695-1696
The expedition from Guatemala reaches Cahabon
Preliminary movements and plans
The fate of Diaz de Velasco; Amezquita follows him
Conclusion of the subjection of the Itzas begun
Paredes is ordered to march to Los Dolores
Canek's ambassador, Can, arrives at Merida
Zuviaur goes to the lake
Ursua determines to take vigorous measures
Lawsuits between Soberanis and Ursua
Captain Paredes at Tzucthok
Captain Hariza at Tipu
The Cacique Cintanek's villages
Can's report
The commands of King Charles II
Soberanis and Ursua in agreement at last
The part to be taken by Indian villages
The road completed as far as the lake
Quincanek feigns friendliness
The hostilities begin
The captains urge Ursua to fight; the battle
Tayasal becomes a Spanish possession
Later history of Tayasal
APPENDICES
I The Question of Orthography
II The Dialect of Peten. (From an unpublished manuscript by Dr. Berendt in the Brinton Collection in the University Museum, Philadelphia)
III The Maps of Yucatan, 1501-1800
IV Itinerary of Avendaño, together with geographical information
Bibliography
LIST OF PLATES
Ia Avendaño's Map of Lake Peten, circa 1697.
Ib Avendaño's Map with English translation.
II Peten Itza in the Middle of the Eighteenth Century.
III Lake Peten and Flores.
IV Sketch (with English translation) of a Map of Yucatan, circa 1566, found with the Landa MS.
V Sketch (with English translation) of another Map of Yucatan, circa 1566, found with the Landa MS.
VI Map showing Entradas to Lake Peten.
HISTORY OF THE SPANISH CONQUEST OF
YUCATAN AND OF THE ITZAS
CHAPTER I
THE PRECOLUMBIAN HISTORY OF THE MAYAS
AND OF THE ITZAS, 1445
In general it may be said that the Maya culture occupied the peninsula of Yucatan, portions of the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, Guatemala, and the northern part of Honduras. That branch of the Mayas who called themselves the Itzas and who form the chief subject of this work occupied the southern portion of Yucatan and the greater part of what is now the Department of Peten in Guatemala.
A few decades ago it was the fashion to credit the aboriginal peoples of America with a civilization of enormous antiquity. But the whole trend of modern scientific investigation tends to prove that the American continent was one of the last parts of the world to be settled and that, at the time of the Spanish conquest, the aboriginal cultures were certainly not more than three thousand or so years old. Even this estimate should be understood to include centuries of migratory shiftings and centuries of development along lines which eventually led to the erection of the earlier types of high culture in Middle and South America. Roughly speaking, the time of Christ coincides with the period at which the earliest high cultures in this hemisphere began to flourish.
For the sake of convenience we shall follow the chronology suggested by Mr. Morley (1915) and divide the pre-Columbian history of the Maya race into eight periods. The first seven of these periods we shall discuss briefly in this opening chapter; the eighth will furnish the subject matter for the remainder of the book. The dates given should be regarded as merely approximate.
PERIODS APPROXIMATE DATESA.D. I Migratory period ?-200 II Golden Age or Old
Before taking up our review of the first seven periods we must remind ourselves that the prehistoric cultures of Middle America have a certain unity, showing beyond doubt that they were all of a common origin. It is impossible to tell at what epoch the Maya became separate and distinct from the other highly cultured peoples scattered over Mexico and Central America. Fortunately, however, owing to the investigations in the Valley of Mexico, we have abundant material for the reconstruction of the sequence of cultures. Three successive strata of occupation have been found in the Valley of Mexico. The earliest of these, the Archaic, is also found in many other places throughout Mexico and Central America. There is some reason to suppose that this culture was at one time fairly uniform throughout the greater part of Middle America. The local developments seen in the Maya, the Zapotec, and the early Mexican cultures may have been the result of modifications of the Archaic culture. Above this Archaic stratum in the Valley of Mexico is found the Toltec or Teotihuacan culture. This is synchronous with late Maya of the sixth period on our table. Manifestations of its art are found in the latest buildings at Chichen Itza.
I. Migratory Period (?-200 A.D.). The two earliest dated Maya inscriptions that we have are those on the Tuxtla statuette and on the Leyden plate. (Morley, 1915, p. 194 ff.; Holmes, 1916.) The former is dated, in the Maya system of chronology, 8.6.2.4.17. (about 100 B.C.); the date on the latter is 8.14.3.1.12. (about 50 A.D.).1.1 Although, as Mr. Morley points out, these are the earliest dates we know of from the Maya area, it is to be noted that they do not differ essentially from the more recent inscriptions. They ought, therefore, to be regarded as introductory to the historic period, and it may be assumed that they were themselves preceded by many decades of development during which the first attempts at writing were gradually elaborated until the extremely complex Maya hieroglyphics were evolved in the form in which we know them.
II. The Golden Age or Old Empire of the Maya (200-600 A.D.). This period extended, roughly, from 9.2.10.0.0. (210) to 10.2.0.0.0. (600). In this time many cities rose, flourished, and fell. Of these Palenque, Yaxchilan, Piedras Negras, Tikal, Seibal, Quirigua, Copan, and Nakum are some of the more important. Like Seibal on the east and Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan on the west, Tikal and Nakum were not far from the Peten region to which our attention will be chiefly directed.1.2 Indeed, Lake Peten lies in what is almost the geographical center of the area formerly occupied by the Old Empire. It is significant, therefore, that Mr. Morley has found at the modern town of Flores (in Lake Peten) two stelae dated approximately 10.1.0.0.0. and 10.2.0.0.0. (580 and 600).
The various elaborate architectural features of the Old Empire cities have been fully examined by many writers, and it is, therefore, needless for us to speak of them except in the most general terms. One predominating feature of all the ruins is the excessive use of ornamentation. Because the country was devoid of any great natural elevations which would give an effective setting for their buildings, the people often used substructures of varying heights and superstructures of several sorts. If one may judge from the sculptures left by the inhabitants of the early cities, their life was mainly taken up with an extremely involved ritualistic religion which, in the hands of a priestly body, was at once the means by which they were ruled and the outlet for the artistic gifts which they undeniably had. Very probably the over-elaborate religion was responsible for the tremendous mass of detail to be seen in so many of the ruined cities. So great was the eagerness for space upon which to crowd ornamentation that an architectural feature which served no purpose other than that of affording more ample space for decoration was evolved. The roof-comb is found in a high degree of development at Yaxchilan and elsewhere. (Spinden, 1913, p. 112, fig. 148.) Sometimes, as at Tikal, this cumbersome construction was carried to such lengths that the area covered by walls was out of all natural proportion to that covered by rooms.
One can only conjecture what brought about the downfall of these ancient cities in which a very advanced culture once flourished. It is not impossible that the priesthood became so oppressive that an emigration took place; or, owing to a lack of proper agricultural knowledge, the fields probably became spent so that the people were forced to seek new homes; possibly also there was some sort of an invasion from the west or east. Any one or all of these causes may have brought about the succeeding period, one which lies within and at the end of the Golden Age.
III. The Colonization Period (450-700 A.D.). This period is chiefly notable for us because it marks the beginning of documentary history and because the Itzas are first specifically mentioned in connection with it.1.3
About 450 Ziyan Caan or Bakhalal was built, to be occupied only some sixty years. (Spinden, 1913, Table 2; Brinton, 1882, Chr. I.) According to Chronicle V the use of the name Itza dates from the founding of Chichen Itza, an event which took place about 510.1.4 At this time there also occurred important changes in the calendar system, an event symbolized in the Chronicles by the phrase "Pop was set in order."
There is, then, in this period of colonization, a well-defined migration northward. The ancient cities in the south did not die out at once, and we may suppose that the sixth century of our era was a time of great cultural activity. It is interesting to know that the old Maya culture and the Tiahuanaco culture (the two greatest American civilizations) were probably in part at least contemporaries. (Cf. Means, 1917.)
The Chronicles are vague and divergent on the question of how long the first occupation of Chichen Itza lasted. Chronicle I says 120 years; Chronicle II says 200; Chronicle III says 240. As two of the three important Chronicles place the length of occupation at 200 years or more, we may assume that it lasted from about 500 to 700 of our era.
To this period we may confidently attribute some of the structures at Chichen. It has been shown that the Casa de Monjas at Chichen underwent several periods of construction. It is what Mr. Thompson has called "Old Chichen," however, that is most surely associated with the period we are now discussing. In that portion of the ruins Mr. Thompson found a lintel dated 10.2.9.1.9. (about 610). As the building in which the lintel was found is one of a group that is quite distinct from the
We have, of course, no satisfactory data from which to derive an opinion as to the territorial expansion of the kingdom ruled from Old Chichen (if, indeed, it was ruled from there). Spinden (1913, p. 201), however, has found ample reason for believing that Xcalumkin, Xlabpak, Sayil, Kabah, and Tabi were flourishing at this period. Briefly, the presence of a modified form of the "manikin scepter" and of the stela (both characteristic of the ancient cities) convinces him that all these places were erected before the influence of the Old Empire cities had died out.
IV. Transitional Period (700-1000 A.D.). The Maya-Itza stock now reëntered upon their migrations. They moved, about 700, to Chakanputum, where they stayed until about 950. The Chronicles all agree as to the length of time the Itzas were at Chakanputum. Of this site we know little beyond the fact that Cortes, when he visited it in 1519, found a large village there.
Just before the Itzas left Champoton, or perhaps just after, Uxmal was founded by Ahcuitok Tutul Xiu, who, according to the tradition, probably came from the west. The lords of this city were destined to have an important part to play in the history of the Itzas. About the year 1000 the cities of Uxmal, Chichen, and Mayapan formed a confederation which has been called the League of Mayapan. After three or four hundred years of unrest after the disintegration of the Old Empire a New Empire was about to begin its career.
V. Renaissance or League Period (1000-1200 A.D.). In the Golden Age or Old Empire the civilization of the Maya race had centered about Lake Peten, in the extreme south of the peninsula of Yucatan. In the time of the New Empire the old cities in the south were gradually forgotten and new ones, quite as remarkable, sprang up in the northern portion of the peninsula. Three cities probably shared the sovereign power, forming, by their alliance, the celebrated League of Mayapan. These cities were Uxmal, ruled by the Xiu family, Mayapan, possibly ruled by the Cocom1.5 family, and Chichen Itza. The latter is, of course, our chief concern; but as it has been often described we will only say that it may have had, at one time, as many as one hundred thousand inhabitants and that the culture that throve there was of a high order.
The political features of the League of Mayapan are difficult to describe with accuracy. Each of the three great cities had its ruling family. Below these was an order of personages called batab, each of whom held and ruled a portion of the country. The batab stood in much the same relation to the ruler of the large city as a medieval baron to the king. Doubtless each batab, ruling from his own city, had a hierarchy of officers under him. Probably Labna, Kabah, Chacmultun, Sayil, Hochob, Aké, Tihoo, Acanceh, Tinum, Kewick, and all the other cities in northern Yucatan were once seats of batabs who were more or less intimately connected with the ruler of one of the three great cities. There was ample machinery for the administration of justice, and crimes were fittingly punished. Such positions as the Halach Uinic (Real Man, i.e., king) of Mayapan and the office of batab of some lesser city usually were inherited according to the rules of primogeniture, but this custom could, for sufficient cause, be set aside.1.6
VI. The Period of the Toltec Mercenaries (1200-1450 A.D.). However much in the dark we may be as to the details of the events which brought about the downfall of the League of Mayapan, we are in no doubt as to the main causes of its disruption. Speaking in very general terms, the situation was as follows. The ruler of Mayapan seems to have been the trouble maker. Becoming ambitious to extend his power over the other Halach Uinicil, he called in a number of mercenaries from Mexico. With the aid of these allies the Halach Uinic of Mayapan made himself master of the whole northern part of Yucatan, but he had to pay a heavy price in the shape of giving Chichen Itza to his allies.
During all these troubles the Xius at Uxmal seem to have preserved a certain amount of independence; certainly as time went on and as the power of Mayapan became more and more tyrannically oppressive, the Xius gradually became the champions of the oppressed. It was but natural that those of the Itza batabs who still remained at Chichen should resent the alien dominion placed over them. If we may believe Chronicle I, they made at least one attempt to get back their old power. The discontent of the Itza element of the population, a discontent always shared in by the Xius at Uxmal, continued to increase during two hundred and fifty years. In that period Chichen Itza, under the influence of its Toltec rulers, witnessed its final period of architectural development. The Ball Court, the Castillo, the Group of the Columns, and other buildings were erected under Toltec influence. It is easy to recognize and identify the structures of this period because they are usually distinguished by such features as serpent columns, tlaxtli or ball courts, Atlantean supports, feathered monsters, and speech scrolls.
About 1450 the inevitable revolution against the tyranny of the Toltecs took place, and with it civilization of the highest type came to an end.
VII. Disintegration (1450-1541 A.D.). Centralized feudalistic government destroyed, Yucatan fell into a sad plight. Where one or two strong states had been before there were now a score of weak ones. In the wars of this period the once great cities of the League were destroyed and abandoned; new and far less advanced cities were founded to take their place. The remnant of the Xiu family retired to Mani; the Cocom became lords of Zotuta. Itzamal seems to have become a sacerdotal state under the dominion of the Chel family. The Itzas, in whom our chief interest lies, probably withdrew far to the south and founded their power in the region about Lake Peten. Brinton (1882, p. 25.) gives this list of the small independent states found by the Spaniards: