S.P.E.
Tract No. II
ON
ENGLISH HOMOPHONES
BY
Robert Bridges
ENGLISH HOMOPHONES
Definition of homophone.
When two or more words different in origin and signification are pronounced alike, whether they are alike or not in their spelling, they are said to be homophonous, or homophones of each other. Such words if spoken without context are of ambiguous signification. Homophone is strictly a relative term, but it is convenient to use it absolutely, and to call any word of this kind a homophone.1
Homophony is between words as significant sounds, but it is needful to state that homophonous words must be different words, else we should include a whole class of words which are not true homophones. Such words as draft, train, board, have each of them separate meanings as various and distinct as some true homophones; for instance, a draught of air, the miraculous draught of fishes, the draught of a ship, the draft of a picture, or a draught of medicine, or the present draft of this essay, though it may ultimately appear medicinal, are, some of them, quite as distinct objects or notions as, for instance, vane and vein are: but the ambiguity of draft, however spelt, is due to its being the name of anything that is drawn; and since there are many ways of drawing things, and different things are drawn in different ways, the same word has come to carry very discrepant significations.
Though such words as these2 are often inconveniently and even distressingly ambiguous, they are not homophones, and are therefore excluded from my list: they exhibit different meanings of one word, not the same sound of different words: they are of necessity present, I suppose, in all languages, and corresponding words in independent languages will often develop exactly corresponding varieties of meaning. But since the ultimate origin and derivation of a word is sometimes uncertain, the scientific distinction cannot be strictly enforced.
False homophones.
Now, wherever the same derivation of any two same-sounding words is at all doubtful, such words are practically homophones:—and again in cases where the derivation is certainly the same, yet, if the ultimate meanings have so diverged that we cannot easily resolve them into one idea, as we always can draft, these also may be practically reckoned as homophones.
Continent, adjective and substantive, is an example of absolute divergence of meaning, inherited from the Latin; but as they are different parts of speech, I allow their plea of identical derivation and exclude them from my list. On the other hand, the substantive beam is an example of such a false homophone as I include. Beam may signify a balk of timber, or a ray of light. Milton's address to light begins
O first created beam
and Chaucer has
As thikke as motes in the sonne-beam,
and this is the commonest use of the word in poetry, and probably in literature: Shelley has
Then the bright child the plumèd seraph came
And fixed its blue and beaming eyes on mine.
But in Tyndal's gospel we read
Why seest thou a mote in thy brother's eye and perceivest not
the beam that is in thine own eye?
The word beam is especially awkward here,3 because the beam that is proper to the eye is not the kind of beam which is intended. The absurdity is not excused by our familiarity, which Shakespeare submitted to, though he omits the incriminating eye:
You found his mote; the king your mote did see,
But I a beam do find in each of three.
And yet just before he had written
So sweet a kiss the golden sun gives not
To those fresh morning drops upon the rose,
As thy eye-beams when their fresh rays have smote
The night of dew that on my cheeks down flows.
Let alone the complication that mote is also a homophone, and that outside Gulliver's travels one might as little expect to find a house-beam as a castle-moat in a man's eye, the confusion of beam is indefensible, and the example will serve three purposes: first to show how different significations of the same word may make practical homophones, secondly the radical mischief of all homophones, and thirdly our insensibility towards an absurdity which is familiar: but the absurdity is no less where we are accustomed to it than where it is unfamiliar and shocks us.
Tolerance due to habit.
And we are so accustomed to homophones in English that they do not much offend us; we do not imagine their non-existence, and most people are probably unaware of their inconvenience. It might seem that to be perpetually burdened by an inconvenience must be the surest way of realizing it, but through habituation our practice is no doubt full of unconscious devices for avoiding these ambiguities: moreover, inconveniences to which we are born are very lightly taken: many persons have grown up to manhood blind of one eye without being aware of their disability; and others who have no sense of smell or who cannot hear high sounds do not miss the sense that they lack; and so I think it may be with us and our homophones.
But since if all words were alike in sound there would be no spoken language, the differentiation of the sound of words is of the essence of speech, and it follows that the more homophones there are in any language, the more faulty is that language as a scientific and convenient vehicle of speech. This will be illustrated in due course: the actual condition of English with respect to homophones must be understood and appreciated before the nature of their growth and the possible means of their mitigation will seem practical questions.
Great number.
The first essential, then, is to know the extent and nature of the mischief; and this can only be accomplished by setting out the homophones in a table before the eye. The list below is taken from a 'pronouncing dictionary' which professes not to deal with obsolete words, and it gives over 800 ambiguous sounds; so that, since these must be at least doublets, and many of them are triplets or quadruplets, we must have something between 1,600 and 2,000 words of ambiguous meaning in our ordinary vocabulary.4
Now it is variously estimated that 3,000 to 5,000 words is about the limit of an average educated man's talking vocabulary, and since the 1,600 are, the most of them, words which such a speaker will use (the
As to what proportion 1,700 (say) may be to the full vocabulary of the language—it is difficult to estimate this because the dictionaries vary so much. The word homophone is not recognized by Johnson or by Richardson: Johnson under homo- has six derivatives of Herbert Spencer's favourite word homogeneous, but beside these only four other words with this Greek affix. Richardson's dictionary has an even smaller number of such entries. Jones has 11 entries of homo-, and these of only five words, but the Oxford dictionary, besides 50 words noted and quoted beginning with homo-, has 64 others with special articles.
Dr. Richard Morris estimated the number of words in an English dictionary as 100,000: Jones has 38,000 words, exclusive of proper names, and I am told that the Oxford dictionary will have over 300,000. Its 114 homo- words will show how this huge number is partly supplied.
Before the reader plunges into the list, I should wish to fortify his spirit against premature despair by telling him that in my tedious searching of the dictionary for these words I was myself cheered to find how many words there were which are not homophones.
LIST OF HOMOPHONES
This list, the object of which is to make the reader easily acquainted with the actual defect of the language in this particular, does not pretend to be complete or scientific; and in the identification of doubtful words the clue was dictated by brevity. s., v., and adj. mean substantive, verb, and adjective. The sections were made to aid the conspectus.
The main indictment is contained in sections i, ii, and iii. These three sections contain 505 entries, involving some 1,075 words.
The homophones in the other sections, iv, v, vi, vii, viii and ix, are generally of such a kind that they would not of themselves constitute a very peculiar case against the English language; but their addition to the main list does very much strengthen the case. One intention in isolating them from the main list was to prevent their contaminating it with their weaker quality; but their separate classification crosses and sometimes overrides that more general distinction. Section iv has some literary interest; vi is inconsistent; the other sections are more or less scientific. These six sections contain some 330 entries involving about 700 words, so that the total of words involved is about 1,775.
The order in this section is that of the phonetic alphabet.
I. THE MAIN LIST OF HOMOPHONES.
arc, ark.
arm (limb), arm (weapon).
alms, arms.
aunt, ant, arn't.
arch (s.), arch (adj.).
eye, ay, I.
idol, idle, idyll.
aisle, isle, I'll.
eyelet, islet.
our, hour.
bark (dog), bark (tree), bark (boat).
balm, barm.
bite, bight.
buy, by, bye.
bough, bow, bow (of ship).
bound (leap), bound (limit), bound (fr. bind).
bank (ground), bank (money).
barren, baron.
barrow (hill), barrow (wheel-b.).
bat (club), bat (vespertilio).
batter (s.), batter (v.).
buck (various roots and senses).
bustle (hurry), bustle (dress).
but, butt (tub), butt (v.).
bale (ill), bale (pack), bail (bis).
base, bass.
bate, bait.
beck (and nod), beck (a brook).
bell, belle.
bury, berry.
bear (s.), bare (adj.), bear, bare (v.).
berth, birth.
bee, be.
beat, beet.
beetle (insect), beetle (hammer).
beach, beech.
bier, beer.
blow (a stroke), blow (of wind).
bow, beau.
bogy, bogie.
bole, bowl.
bolt (a weapon), bolt (sift), bolt (run).
bore (perforate), bore (tidal), bore (fr. bear), boar.
board, bawd, bored.
ball, bawl.
born, borne.
boy, buoy.
boil (s.), boil (v.).
box (tree), box (receptacle), box (v.).
bridal, bridle.
bray (of donkey), bray (to pound), brae.
break, brake (fern), brake (of carriages, bis).
braze (to solder), braze (to brazen), braise (to stew), braes.
breach, breech.
breeze (the wind), breeze (a fly), breeze (cinders).
broach, brooch.
hue, hew.
die (v.), dye, die (cast).
down (dune), down (fluff), down (adv.).
doubt, dout.
dam (mother), dam (obstruct), damn.
duck (bird), duck (dear), duck (stuff), duck (v.).
dun (colour), dun (importune), done.
date (fruit), date (datum).
dean, dene.
deer, dear.
desert, dessert.
due, dew.
doe, dough.
dock (plant), dock (basin), dock (shear).
drill (sow), drill (bore), drill (training).
drupe, droop.
jar (vase), jar (discord).
jamb, jam.
jet (mineral), jet (squirt).
gin (drink), gin (snare), jinn.
there, their.
the, thee.
eh! aye (ever).
ale, ail.
eight, ait or eyot, ate (fr. eat).
egg, egg (to incite).
elder (tree), elder (senior).
air, heir, ere, e'er.
airship, heirship.
aery, airy.
earn, urn, erne (eagle).
alight (adj.), alight (v.).
ascent, assent.
foul, fowl.
fallow (untilled), fallow (colour).
fane, feign, fain.
faint, feint.
fast (eccl.), fast (adj. various).
fate, fête.
fell (fierce), fell (skin), fell (hill), fell (fr. fall).
fellow, felloe.
ferule, ferrule.
fair, fare [doublet], phare.
fir, fur.
feet, feat (s.), feat (adj. obs.).
filter, philtre.
fit (befit), fit (conflict), fytte [obs.].
flag (v.), flag (ensign), flag (plant), flag (-stone).
flee, flea.
flow, floe.
flock (herd), flock (of wool).
flue (chimney), flue (velu), flew (fr. fly).
fluke (fish), fluke (of anchor), fluke (slang word).
fold (wrap), fold (of sheep), foaled.
four, fore, for.
forego, forgo, and other compounds.
fourth, forth.
foil (s.), foil (v.), foil (fencer's).
fray (ravel), fray (combat).
fret (eat away), fret (adorn), fret (on lute).
freeze, frieze (archt.), frieze (cloth), frees (fr. free).
gamble, gambol,
gum (resin), gum (teeth).
gage, gauge,
gate, gait.
gird (encircle), gird (revile).
guild, gild.
guilt, gilt.
glare, glair (white of egg), + glary, glairy.
gore (pierce), gore (triangle), gore (blood).
groin, groyne (breakwater).
great, grate (s.), grate (v.).
heart, hart.
high, hie.
hide (v.), hide (skin), hied.
hack (hew), hack (hackney).
hamper (impede), hamper (hanaper).
hail! hail (snow), hale (adj.), hale (haul).
helm (of ship), helm (helmet).
hair, hare.
heel, heal, he'll.
here, hear.
hymn, him.
hole, whole, + holy, wholly, holey.
home, holm.
hoar, whore, haw.
hoard, horde,
hawk (bird), hawk (v. of hawker), hawk (hoquet).
hall, haul.
halt (v.), halt (adj.).
horse, hoarse.
hock (of horse), hock (wine).
hop (jump), hop (plant).
hue, hew.
humorous, humerus.
even (s.), even (adj.).
ear, ear (plough), ear (of corn).
yoke, yolk.
yew, ewe, you.
ure, ewer, your.
card (s.), card (v.).
cask, casque.
cast, caste.
cart, carte, quart (cards and fencing).
count (s.), count (v.).
counter (opp.), counter (of shop), counter (in games), &c.
couch (coucher), couch (grass).
caddy (lad), caddy (box).
can (s.), can (v.).
cannon, canon bis.
currant, current.
curry (food), curry (comb).
colonel, kernel.
cape (dress), cape (headland).
caper (skip), caper (plant).
case (event), case (receptacle).
cashier (s.), cashier (v.).
key, quay.
keen (adj.), keen (v.).
cue, queue.
climb, clime.
cleek, clique.
coal, cole.
cope (v.), cope (s.).
coat, cote.
core, corps, caw.
cork, caulk.
call, caul.
corn (grain), corn (horny growth).
course, coarse, corse.
cobble (to patch), cobble (boat), cobble (-stones).
cock (s. and v.), cock (of hay).
cockle (v.), cockle (s. var.).
creak, creek.
cricket (insect), cricket (game).
cruel, crewel.
cruise, cruse, crews.
coombe (valley), coom (dry measure).
choir, quire (of paper).
quiver (v.), quiver (s.).
queen, quean [obs.].
last (adj., verb), last (s.)
lye (s.), lie (v.), lie (s. and n.).
lyre, liar.
lichen, liken.
light (s.), light (not heavy), and hence lighten, lighten.
lack, lac, lakh.
lap (lick up), lap (fold), lap (knees).
lay (s., bis), lay (v.).
lake (pond), lake (colour).
let (allow), let (lease, v.), let (hinder, obs.).
lee, lea.
leaf, lief.
league (s.), league (v. and s.)
leak, leek.
lean (v.), lean (adj.).
leech (sucker and doctor), leech (of sail).
leave (quit), leave (permit).
limp (adj.), limp (v.).
link (chain), link (torch), also golf-links,
list (listen), list (heel over), list (of flannel).
liver (organ), liver (who lives).
lo! low (adj.), low (of cow's voice).
load, lode, lowed,
lone, loan.
lock (of door), lock (of hair), loch.
long (adj.), long (v.).
lorn, lawn,
lute, loot.
mast (of ship), mast (beech-m.).
march (step), march (boundary), March (month).
mine (s.), mine (poss. pron.).
mite, might (s.), might (v.), [and adj. -y].
mitre (headdress), mitre (carpentry, &c.).
mass (quantity), mass (office).
match (equal), match (mèche).
muff (dress), muff (a stupid).
may (month), may (maid, obs.), may (v.).
male, mail (coat of), mail (post).
mane, main.
mace (staff), mace (spice).
maze, maize, Mays (pl. of month).
mare, mayor.
meed, mead (meadow), mead (drink).
mean (intend), mean (intermediate), mean (poor), mien (countenance).
meet, meat, mete (adj. and v.).
mere (pool), mere (adj.).
mint (herb), mint (coining).
miss (fail), Miss.
mew (cage), mew (bird), mew (of cat).
mute (adj.), mute (of birds).
muse (think), Muse, mews (stable), mews (fr. mew).
mote, moat.
mow (various senses), mot (French).
mole (animal), mole (of skin), mole (breakwater).
mould (to model), mould (earth), mould (rust).
maul (disfigure), Mall (place), mahl (-stick).
morn, mourn, and morning.
moor (country), Moor (race)
night, knight.
none, nun.
need, knead, knee'd.
neat (s.), neat (adj.).
no, know.
not, knot.
oar, ore, or, o'er, awe.
augur, auger.
all, awl, orle (heraldry).
altar, alter.
oral, aural.
ought (zero), ought (pp. of owe), ort [obs.].
par, pas (faus).
pie (pica), pie (dish).
pale (pole), pale (pallid), pail.
pile (heap), pile (stake), pile (hair).
pine (v.), pine (tree).
pound (weight), pound (enclosure), pound (to bruise).
pounce (v.), pounce (=pumice).
pallet, palette, palate.
paten, patten, pattern.
pulse (beat), pulse (pease).
punch (strike), punch (drink), Punch (and Judy).
page (of bk.), page (boy).
pane, pain.
peck (measure), peck (v.).
pelt (to throw), pelt (skin).
pen (writing), pen (inclose).
pair, pear, pare.
pearl, purl (flow), purl (knitting).
pique, peak.
peal, peel.
peep (to look), peep (chirp).
piece, peace.
peach (fruit), peach (impeach).
peer (to look), peer (s.), pier.
pill (ball), pill (to pillage).
pink (a flower), pink (a colour), pink (to pierce).
pip (a seed), pip (a disease), pip (on cards).
pitch (s.), pitch (to fall, &c.).
plight (pledge), plight or plite (to plait), and 'sad plight'.
plat (of ground), plait.
plum, plumb.
plump (adj.), plump (to fall heavily).
plane (tree), plain [both various].
plot (of ground), plot (stratagem), + verbs.
pole, poll.
poach, (eggs), poach (steal game).
pore (of skin), pore (top. over), paw.
potter (v.), potter (s.).
pall (v.), pall (cloak), pawl (mechanics).
pry (inquisitive), pry (to prise open).
prise, prize.
pray, prey.
prune (fruit), prune (s.).
rye, wry.
rime, rhyme.
right, write, wright, rite.
rabbit, rabbet (carpentry).
rack [various], wrack.
racket, racquet.
rally (assemble), rally (=raillery).
rank (s.), rank (rancid).
rap, wrap.
rash (s.), rash
ruff, rough.
rum (queer), rum (drink), rhumb (naut.).
rung (s.), and past pp. rung, wrung.
rush (s.), rush (v.).
rape (seed), rape (ravish), rape (divn. of county, obs.).
race (family), race (root), race (that is run).
rate (proportion), rate (to chide).
rut (furrow), rut (of animals).
rake (tool), rake (a prodigal), rake (of a ship).
rail (fence), rail (bird).
rain, reign, rein.
raise, raze.
reck, wreck.
rent (paymt.), rent (s., tear), rent (fr. rend).
rest (repose), rest (remainder), wrest.
reed, read.
reef (of rocks), reef (of sails).
reek, wreak.
reel (highland-), reel (cotton-).
reach, retch.
reave, reeve (naut.), reeve (bailiff, obs.).
rifle (ransack), rifle (s.v., groove).
rear (raise), rear (arrière).
rig (of ship), rig (prank, riggish), rig (-s of barley).
rick (of corn), rick wrick (strain).
ring, wring.
repair (mend), repair (resort, v.).
row (oaring), row (s. of things in line), roe (of fish), roe (fem. deer).
roll [various], rôle.
rock (stone), rock (v.), roc.
rocket (plant), rocket (firework).
rue (plant), rue (v. of ruth).
rude (adj.), rood (s.), rued (fr. rue).
room, rheum.
root, route.
rout, route (military).
sign, sine (trigonom.).
site, sight, cite.
size (magnitude), size (glue).
sough, sow.
sound (noise), sound (to fathom), sound (adj.), sound (strait of sea), sound (fish bladder).
sack (bag), sack (to plunder), sack (wine).
swallow (a willow), sallow (pale colour).
sap (of trees), sap (mine).
sum, some.
sun, son + sunny, sonnie.
sage (plant), sage (adj.).
sale, sail.
sell, cell.
sense, cense.
censual, sensual.
surge, serge.
surf, serf.
scent, cent, sent (fr. send).
session, cession.
sea, see.
seed, cede.
seal (animal), ciel or ceil, seal (sign).
seam, seem.
sear, sere, cere, seer.
serial, cereal.
signet, cygnet.
cist (box), cyst (tumour, Gr.).
scar (of wound), scar (a rock).
skull, scull.
scale (shell), scale (of balance), scale (of stairs).
scald (burn), skald (poet, Norse).
scrub (of shrubs), scrub (v.).
sledge (vehicle), sledge (-hammer).
slight, sleight.
slay, sleigh (sledge).
slate (s.), slate (v., abuse).
sloe, slow.
slop (puddle), slop (loose garment).
slot (track), slot (bar).
sole (adj.), soul, sole (a fish).
sow, sew.
saw (tool), soar, sore, saw (maxim), saw (fr. see).
soil (ground), soil (defile), soil (v., of horses).
spar (beam), spar (mineral), spar (to box).
salter (who salts), psalter.
source, sauce.
spell (incantation), spell (letters), spell (turn of work).
spill (upset), spill (match).
spit (v.), spit (roasting), spit (of land).
spray (drizzle), spray (= sprig).
spruce (tree), spruce (adj.)
style, stile.
stud (nail), stud (of horses).
stake (post), steak, stake (deposit).
step, steppe.
stair, stare.
stern (adj.), stern (of ship).
steal, steel, stele.
steep (adj.), steep (v.).
steer (direct), steer (young ox).
still (tranquil), still (distil).
stalk (stem), stalk (v.), stork.
story, storey.
strand (shore), strand (fibre).
strain (v. and s.), strain (a breed).
strait (narrow), straight (upright).
stroke (a blow), stroke (fondle).
stoup, stoop.
shed (scatter), shed (shelter).
tart (adj.), tart (a pie).
tyre (of wheel), tire (fatigue), tire (attire), + tier (who ties).
time, thyme.
tap (to strike), tap (short pipe).
tale, tail, tail (estate in t.).
tender (adj.), tender (s., attender).
tent (pavilion), tent (plug of lint, s. and v.), tent (wine).
tare, tear (v.).
teem, team.
tear (eye), tier.
tick (bedding), tick (sheep), tick (clock), tic (spasm), tick (credit).
till (cash drawer), till (until).
tilt (v., to make aslant), tilt (tourney), tilt (of caravan).
tip (top), tip (make to slant), tip (a gift).
toe, tow (hemp), tow (draw a boat).
two, too, to.
toll (lax), toll (of bells).
taut, taught, tort.
toil (labour), toil (a snare).
top (summit), top (a toy).
truck (vehicle), truck (naut.), truck (barter).
trump (trumpet), trump (at cards).
trunk (box), trunk (of tree), trunk (of elephant).
tray, trait.
trace (track), trace (strap).
chair, chare.
chap (crack), chap (chapman), chap (cheek).
char (burn), char (fish), char (-woman).
chop (with hatchet), chop (and change).
chuck (chick), chuck (strike gently).
chase (hunt), chase (enchase), chase (printer's case), chase (groove).
vice (depravity), vice (clench), vice (deputy).
valley, valet.
van (front of army), van (fan), van (caravan).
vale, vail, veil.
vain, vein, vane.
won, one.
wake (awake), wake (watch), wake (of ship).
wain, wane.
waste, waist.
wait, weight.
wave, waive.
well (good), well (spring).
wee, we.
weak, week.
ween, wean.
war, wore.
would, wood.
II. All the following examples involve wh. > w.5
ware (earthen-), ware (aware), wear, where, were.
way, weigh, whey.
weal (wealth), weal (a swelling), wheel.
weald, wield, wheeled.
while, wile.
whine, wine,
white, wight.
whether, weather.
whither, wither.
whig, wig.
whit, wit.
what, wot.
whet, wet.
whirr, were = wer'.
whin, win.
whist, wist.
which, witch, wych (elm).
III. Group of
ion, iron.
father, farther.
lava, larva.
halm, harm.
calve, carve.
talk, torque.
daw, door.
flaw, floor.
yaw, yore.
law, lore.
laud, lord.
maw, more,
gnaw, nor.
raw, roar.
shaw, shore.
IV. The name of a species (of animals, plants, &c.) is often a homophone. Where there is only one alternative meaning, this causes so little inconvenience that the following names (being in that condition) have been excluded from List I.7
bleak (fish), bleak (adj.).
dace, dais.
gull (bird), gull (s. and v.).
carp, carp (v.).
cod, cod (husk).
codling, coddling (fr. coddle).
flounder (fish), flounder (v.).
quail (bird), quail (v.).
lark (bird), lark (fun).
ling (fish), ling (heather).
mussel, muscle.
nit, knit.
awk, orc.
oriole, aureole.
pike (fish), pike (weapon).
pout (fish), pout (v.).
perch (fish), perch (alight).
plaice, place.
ray (fish), ray (of light).
rook (bird), rook (v.).
skua, skewer.
skate (fish), skate (on ice).
smelt (fish), smelt (fr. smell).
swift (bird), swift (adj.).
swallow (bird), swallow (throat).
tapir, taper.
tern, turn.
teal (fish), teil (tree).
thrush (bird), thrush (disease).
V. The suffix er added to a root often makes homophones. The following are examples. (And see in List VI.)
byre, buyer (who buys).
butter (s.), butter (who butts).
better (adj.), better (who bets).
border, boarder.
dire, dyer.
founder (v.), founder (who founds).
geyser, gazer.
greater, grater (nutmeg).
canter (pace), canter (who cants).
medlar, meddler.
moulder (v.), moulder (who moulds).
pitcher (vessel), pitcher (who pitches).
pillar, piller.
platter, plaiter.
plumper (adj.), plumper (s.).
sounder (adj.), sounder (who sounds).
cellar, seller, &c.
VI. Words excluded from the main list for various reasons, their homophony being rightly questioned by many speakers.
actor, acta (sanctorum).
brute, bruit.
direst, diarist.
descent, dissent.
deviser, divisor.
dual, duel.
goffer, golfer.
carrot, carat.
caudle, caudal.
choler, collar.
compliment, complement.
lumber, lumbar.
lesson, lessen.
literal, littoral.
marshal, martial.
minor, miner.
manor, manner.
medal, meddle.
metal, mettle.
missal, missel (thrush).
orphan, often.
putty, puttee.
pedal, peddle.
police, pelisse.
principal, principle.
profit, prophet.
rigour, rigger.
rancour, ranker.
succour, sucker.
sailor, sailer.
cellar, seller.
censor, censer.
surplus, surplice.
symbol, cymbal.
skip, skep.
tuber, tuba.
whirl, whorl.
wert, wort (herb, obs.).
vial, viol.
verdure, verger (in Jones).
VII. Homophones due only to an inflected form of a word. Comparatives of adjectives, &c.
adze, adds.
art (s.), art (v.).
bard, barred.
band, banned.
battels, battles (bis).
baste, based.
baize, bays (bis).
bent, bent (pp. bend).
bean, been.
blue, blew.
bode, bowed.
bold, bowled, bolled (obs.).
bald, bawled.
braid, brayed.
bread, bred.
brood, brewed.
bruise, brews.
depose, dépôts.
divers (adj.), divers (plu.).
dug (teat), dug (fr. dig).
duct, ducked.
dust, dost.
daze, days.
daisies, dazes (both inflected).
doze, does (plu. of doe).
aloud, allowed.
fort, fought.
found (v.), found (fr. find)
phase, fays (pl. of fay).
felt (stuff), felt (fr. feel)
furze, firs, and furs.
feed (s. and v.), fee'd.
flatter (v.), flatter (adj.).
phlox, flocks.
phrase, frays.
guise, guys (plu.).
gaud, gored.
gauze, gores.
guest, guessed.
glose, glows.
ground (s.), ground (fr. grind).
graze, greys.
greaves, grieves.
groan, grown.
grocer, grosser.
hire, higher.
herd, heard.
hist, hissed.
hose, hoes.
hawse (naut.), haws, &c.
eaves, eves.
use (v.), ewes, yews.
candid, candied.
clove (s.), clove (fr. cleave).
clause, claws.
cold, coaled.
courser, coarser.
court, caught.
cause, cores, caws.
coir, coyer (fr. coy).
crew (s.), crew (fr. crow).
quartz, quarts.
lighter (s.), lighter (fr. light, adj.).
lax, lacks, &c.
lapse, laps, &c.
lade (v.), laid.
lane, lain.
lead (mineral), led.
left (adj.), left (fr. leave).
Lent, leant, lent (fr. lend).
least, leased.
lees (of wine), leas, &c.
lynx, links.
mind, mined.
madder (plant), madder (fr. mad).
mustard, mustered.
maid, made.
mist, missed.
mode, mowed.
moan, mown.
new, knew, &c.
nose, knows, noes.
aught (a whit), ought (fr. owe).
pact, packed.
paste, paced.
pervade, purveyed.
pyx, picks.
please, pleas.
pause, paws, pores.
pride, pried [bis].
prize, pries.
praise, prays, preys.
rouse, rows.
rasher (bacon), rasher (fr. rash).
raid, rayed.
red, read (p. of to read).
rex, wrecks, recks.
road, rode, rowed.
rote, wrote.
rove (v. of rover), rove (fr. reeve).
rose, rows (var.), roes (var.), rose (v.).
ruse, rues (fr. rue).
side, sighed.
size, sighs.
scene, seen.
seize, seas, sees.
sold, soled (both inflected).
sword, soared.
sort, sought.
span (length), span (fr. spin).
spoke (of wheel), spoke (fr. speak).
stole (s.), stole (fr. steal).
stove (s.), stove (fr. stave).
tide, tied.
tax, tacks (various).
tact, tacked.
tease, teas, tees.
toad, towed, toed.
told, tolled.
tract, tracked.
trust, trussed.
chaste, chased (various).
choose, chews.
throne, thrown.
through, threw.
wild, wiled.
wind (roll), whined.
wax, whacks.
wade, weighed.
weld, welled.
word, whirred.
wilt (wither), wilt (fr. will).
ward, warred.
wont, won't.
warn, worn.
VIII. 'False homophones' [see p. 4], doubtful doublets, &c.
beam, beam (of light).
bit (horse), bit (piece), bit (fr. bite).
brace, brace.
diet, diet.
deck (cover), deck (adorn).
deal (various).
dram (drink), drachm.
drone (insect), drone (sound).
jest, gest (romance, and obs. senses).
jib (sail), jib (of horses).
fine (adj., v. senses), fine (mulct).
flower, flour.
fleet (s.), fleet (adj.), Fleet (stream).
grain (corn), grain (fibre).
indite, indict.
incense (v. =cense), incense (incite).
kind (adj.), kind (s.).
canvas, canvass.
cuff (sleeve), cuff (strife).
cousin, cozen.
cord, chord (music).
coin, coign.
cotton (s.), cotton (v.).
crank (s.), crank (adj.).
quaver (v.), quaver (music).
levy, levee.
litter (brood), litter (straw).
mantle (cloak), mantle (shelf).
mess (confusion), mess (table).
mussel, muscle.
nail (unguis), nail (clavus).
patent (open), patent (monopoly).
pommel (s.), pummel (v.).
refrain (v.), refrain (s., in verse).
retort (reply), retort (chemical vessel).
second (number), second (of time).
squall (v.), squall (a gale).
slab (s.), slab (adj.).
smart (s. and v., sting), smart (adj.).
stave (of barrel), stave (of music), [stave in (v.)].
stick (s.), stick (v.).
stock (stone), stock (in trade), &c.
strut (a support), strut (to walk).
share (division), share (plough).
sheet (sail and clew), sheet (-anchor).
shear (clip), sheer (clear), sheer off (deviate).
tack (various), tack (naut.).
ton, tun.
wage (earnings), wage (of war).
IX. The following words were not admitted into the main class chiefly on account of their unimportance.
ah! are.
arse, ass.
ask, aske (newt)
ayah, ire.
bah! bar, baa.
barb, barb (horse).
bask, basque.
barn, barne = bairn.
budge, budge (stuff).
buff, buff.
buffer, buffer.
berg, burgh (suffixes).
bin, bin = been.
broke (v. of broke), broke (fr. break).
broom, brume (fog).
darn, darn.
fizz, phiz.
few, feu.
forty, forte.
hay, heigh!
hem (sew), hem (v., haw).
hollow, hollo (v.).
inn, in.
yawl (boat), yawl (howl).
coup, coo.
lamb, lam (bang).
loaf, loaf (v. laufen).
marry! marry (v.).
nag (pony), nag (to gnaw), knag.
nap (of cloth), nap (sleep).
nay, neigh.
oh! owe.
ode, owed.
oxide, ox-eyed.
pax, packs.
pants, pants (fr. pant).
prose, pros (and cons).
sink (var.), cinque.
swayed, suede (kid).
ternary, turnery.
tea, tee (starting point).
taw (to dress skins), taw (game, marbles), tore (fr. tear).
cheap, cheep.
tool, tulle,
we! woe.
ho! hoe.
The facts of the case being now sufficiently supplied by the above list, I will put my attitude towards those facts in a logical sequence under separate statements, which thus isolated will, if examined one by one, avoid the confusion that their interdependence might otherwise occasion. The sequence is thus:
1. Homophones are a nuisance.
2. They are exceptionally frequent in English.
3. They are self-destructive, and tend to become obsolete.
4. This loss impoverishes the language.
5. This impoverishment is now proceeding owing to the prevalence of the Southern English standard of speech.
6. The mischief is being worsened and propagated by the phoneticians.
7. The Southern English dialect has no claim to exclusive preference.
1. That homophones are a nuisance.
An objector who should plead that homophones are not a nuisance might allege the longevity of the Chinese language, composed, I believe, chiefly of homophones distinguished from each other by an accentuation which must be delicate difficult and precarious. I remember that Max Müller [1864] instanced a fictitious sentence
ba bà bâ bá,
'which (he wrote) is said to mean if properly accented The three ladies gave a box on the ear to the favourite of the princess.' This suggests that the bleating of sheep may have a richer significance than we are accustomed to suppose; and it may perhaps illustrate the origin as well as the decay of human speech. The only question that it raises for us is the possibility of distinguishing our own homophones by accentuation or by slight differentiation of vowels; and this may prove to be in some cases the practical solution, but it is not now the point in discussion, for no one will deny that such delicate distinctions are both inconvenient and dangerous, and should only be adopted if forced upon us. I shall assume that common sense and universal experience exonerate me from wasting words on the proof that homophones are mischievous, and I will give my one example in a note8; but it is a fit place for some general remarks.
The objections to homophones are of two kinds, either scientific and utilitarian, or æsthetic. The utilitarian objections are manifest, and since confusion of words is not confined to homophones, the practical inconvenience that is sometimes occasioned by slight similarities may properly be alleged to illustrate and enforce the argument. I will give only one example.
Utilitarian objections not confined to homophones.
The telephone, which seems to lower the value of differentiating consonants, has revealed unsuspected likenesses. For instance the ciphers, if written somewhat phonetically as usually pronounced, are thus:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 nawt wun too three fawr faiv sixby which it will be seen that the ten names contain eight but only eight different vowels, 0 and 4 having the same vowel aw, while 5 and 9 have ai. Both these pairs caused confusion; the first of them was cured by substituting the name of the letter O for the name of the zero cipher, which happens to be identical with it in form,9 and this introduced a ninth vowel sound ou (= owe), but the other pair remained such a constant source of error, that persons who had their house put on the general telephonic system would request the Post Office to give them a number that did not contain a 9 or a 5; and it is pretty certain that had not the system of automatic dialling, which was invented for quite another purpose, got rid of the trouble, one of these two ciphers would have changed its name at the Post Office.
Æsthetic objections.
In the effect of uniformity it may be said that utilitarian and æsthetic considerations are generally at one; and this blank statement must here suffice, for the principle could not be briefly dealt with: but it follows from it that the proper æsthetic objections to homophones are never clearly separable from the scientific. I submit the following considerations. Any one who seriously attempts to write well-sounding English will be aware how delicately sensitive our ear is to the repetition of sounds. He will often have found it necessary to change some unimportant word because its accented vowel recalled and jarred with another which was perhaps as far as two or three lines removed from it: nor does there seem to be any rule for this, since apparently similar repetitions do not always offend, and may even be agreeable. The relation of the sound to the meaning is indefinable, but in homophones it is blatant; for instance the common expression It is well could not be used in a paragraph where the word well (= well-spring) had occurred. Now, this being so, it is very inconvenient to find the omnipresent words no and know excluding each other: and the same is true of sea and see; if you are writing of the sea then the verb to see is forbidden, or at least needs some handling.