Transcriber's Notes
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BATTLE BETWEEN CONSTANTINE AND MAXENTIUS
(From a painting by Giulio Romano, Francesco Penni and Raffaellino del Colle)
PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN
ROME
BY
RODOLFO LANCIANI
AUTHOR OF "ANCIENT ROME IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT DISCOVERIES"
PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED
BOSTON AND NEW YORK
HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY
The Riverside Press, Cambridge
1893
Copyright, 1892,
BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO.
All rights reserved.
The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
Electrotyped and Printed by H.O. Houghton & Co.
CONTENTS
Page CHAPTER I. The Transformation of Rome from a Pagan into a Christian City. 1 CHAPTER II. Pagan Shrines and Temples. 51 CHAPTER III. Christian Churches. 107 CHAPTER IV. Imperial Tombs. 168 CHAPTER V. Papal Tombs. 209 CHAPTER VI. Pagan Cemetries. 253 CHAPTER VII. Christian Cemetries. 306 Ludi Sæculares, Inscription edited by Mommsen 362
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FULL-PAGE PLATES
Battle between Constantine and Maxentius (from a paintingby Giulio Romano, Fransesco Penni, and Raffaellino del Colle)
(Heliotype) Frontispiece Arch of Constantine 20 The Translation of S. Cyril's Remains (fresco in S. Clemente.
done at the order of Maria Macellaria) 32 The Western Summit of the Capitoline Hill 86 Panel from the Arch of Marcus Aurelius (Heliotype) 90 Plan of Schola above the Catacombs of Callixtus (from
Nortet's Les Catacombes Romains 118 Plan of Old S. Peter's, showing its relation to the
Circus of Nero 128 Plan of the Graves surrounding that of S. Peter discovered
at the Time of Paul V. (from a rare engraving
by Benedetto Drei, head master mason to the Pope. The site
of the tomb of S. Peter and the Fenestella are indicated by
the author) 132 S. Peter's in 1588. (from an engraving by Ciampini)
Constantine in black; that of Theodosius and Honorius shaded) 150 Map showing the Location of Phaon's Villa 188 Sarcophagus of Helena, Mother of Constantine (Heliotype) 198 Rotunda and Obelisk South of Old S. Peter's. (After Bonanni) 202 Crypt of Pope Cornelius 218 The Cloisters of the Lateran, as now restored (Heliotype) 238 Tomb of Innocent VIII (Heliotype) 242 Tomb of Paul III (Heliotype) 246 Figure from the Tomb of Clement XIII (Heliotype) 250 Interior of a Columbarium in the Vigna Codini 260 Detail from the Ceiling of the House discovered in
the Farnesina Gardens 264 Works of Art discovered in the Tomb of Sulpicius
Platorinus (Heliotype) 268 Tomb of the Boy Q. Sulpicius Maximus (Heliotype) 282 The Appian Way and the Campagna 286 Objects found in the Grave of Crepereia Tryphæna 302 Christian Military Cemetery of Concordia Sagittaria 324 The Ideal Roman Figure of Christ (Heliotype) 348
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
Tablet of Acilius Glabrio 4 Map of the Via Salaria 7 Portrait Bust of Philip the Younger 13 Inscription found near the Porta del Popolo, 1877 15 Inscription in a tomb of the Via Severiana at Ostia 16 Lamp of Annius Ser......, with figure of the Good Shepherd 18 Picture of Orpheus found in the Catacombs of Priscilla 23 The Four Seasons (from the Imperial Palace, Ostia) 24 Ancient Candelabrum in the church of SS. Nereo edAchilleo 26 The Templum Sacræ Urbis (SS. Cosma e Damiano)
d' Armi) 64 A Pelasgic hieron, or platform of altar, at Segni 68 Round Temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium 69 Ara of Aius Locutius on the Palatine 72 Pillar commemorating the Ludi Sæculares 73 Plan and section of the Altar of Dis and Proserpina 76 The family of Augustus (relief from the Ara Pacis, in the Gallery
of the Uffizi, Florence) 83 View of the Platform of the Temple of Jupiter 88 The Sphinx of Amasis 94 Obelisk of Rameses the Great 95 One of the Provinces from the Temple of Neptune 100 Plan of the Temple of Augustus 103 Remains of the Temple of Augustus (from a sketch by Ligorio) 103 Statue of Semo Sancus 105 Remains of the House of Pudens, discovered in 1870 114 Plan of Pompeian House 114 Remains of the House of Pudens: Front Wall, pierced
by Modern Windows
Side) 134 Nave of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura 135 The Fountain of Symmachus 136 The Chair of S. Peter (after photograph from original) 140 Bronze Statue of S. Peter 142 Statue of S. Hippolytus 143 The Burning of S. Paul's, July 15, 1823 (from an old print) 152 Tombstone of S. Paul 157 Statue of Constantine the Great 164 Military funeral evolutions (from the base of the column
of Antoninus) 170 The Apotheosis of an Emperor (from the base of the column of
Antoninus) 171 The Cippus of Agrippina the Elder, made into a Measure
for Grain 184 Head of Nero, in the Capitoline Museum 186 The Ponte Nomentano 187 Plan of the Alta Semita 191 Remains of Geta's Mausoleum 196 The Torre Pignattara 197 The Mausoleum of S. Constantia 199 Plan of the Imperial Mausoleum 200 Portrait heads of S. Peter and S. Paul 212 Tombstone of Cornelius 215 Portrait of Pope Cornelius (from a fresco near his grave) 219 The Atrium of Old S. Peter's 222 Statue of S. Gregory the Great 225 The Angel on the Mausoleum of Hadrian 228 Modern Façade of the Monastery of S. Gregory on the
Cælian 230 Inscription of Vassalectus 238 Candelabrum in the Church of S. Paolo fuori le
Farnesina Gardens 265 The Judgment of Solomon 271 Panel from the bronze door of S. Peter's, by Filarete 272 Tomb of Helius, the shoemaker 274 Sarcophagus of the Leukippides 280 Tomb of Annia Regilla (Fragment) 291 The Sacred Grove and the Temple of Ceres; now S. Urbano
alla Caffarella 294 The body of a girl found in 1485 298 Cubiculum of Januarius 322 Sancta Viatrix 334 Basilica of Nereus, Achilleus and Petronilla 338 The Execution of Acilleus 339 Petronilla and Veneranda 341 The portrait head of Jesus in the Sancta Sanctorum 348 Landslip in the Cemetery of Cyriaca 351 Inscription from the tombstone of a dentist 353 Inscription from the grave of Alexander, a dentist 353 Surgeon's instruments (from a relief on a tombstone) 353 The Symbolic Supper 357
The drawings in this volume, with a few exceptions, are by Harold B. Warren, of Boston, who also made the drawings for "Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries."
PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN ROME.
CHAPTER I.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF ROME FROM A PAGAN INTO A
CHRISTIAN CITY.[1]
The early adoption of Christianity not confined to the poorer classes.—Instances of Roman nobles who were Christians.—The family of the Acilii Glabriones.—Manius Acilius the consul.—Put to death because of his religion.—Description of his tomb, recently discovered.—Other Christian patricians.—How was it possible for men in public office to serve both Christ and Cæsar?—The usual liberality of the emperors towards the new religion.—Nevertheless an open profession of faith hazardous and frequently avoided.—Marriages between Christians and pagans.—Apostasy resulting from these.—Curious discovery illustrating the attitude of Seneca's family towards Christianity.—Christians in the army.—The gradual nature of the transformation of Rome.—The significance of the inscription on the Arch of Constantine.—The readiness of the early Church to adopt pagan customs and even myths.—The curious mixture of pagan and Christian conceptions which grew out of this.—Churches became repositories for classical works of art, for which new interpretations were
It has been contended, and many still believe, that in ancient Rome the doctrines of Christ found no proselytes, except among the lower and poorer classes of citizens. That is certainly a noble picture which represents the new faith as searching among the haunts of poverty and slavery, seeking to inspire faith, hope, and charity in their occupants; to transform them from things into human beings; to make them believe in the happiness of a future life; to alleviate their present sufferings; to redeem their children from shame and servitude; to proclaim them equal to their masters. But the gospel found its way also to the mansions of the masters, nay, even to the palace of the Cæsars. The discoveries lately made on this subject are startling, and constitute a new chapter in the history of imperial Rome. We have been used to consider early Christian history and primitive Christian art as matters of secondary importance, and hardly worthy the attention of the classical student. Thus, none of the four or five hundred volumes on the topography of ancient Rome speaks of the basilicas raised by Constantine; of the church of S. Maria Antiqua, built side by side with the Temple of Vesta, the two worships dwelling together as it were, for nearly a century; of the Christian burial-grounds; of the imperial mausoleum near S. Peter's; of the porticoes, several miles in length, which led from the centre of the city to the churches of S. Peter, S. Paul, and S. Lorenzo; of the palace of the Cæsars transformed into the residence of the Popes. Why should these constructions of monumental and historical character be expelled from the list of classical buildings? and why should we overlook the fact that many great names in the annals of the empire are those of members of the Church, especially when the knowledge of their conversion enables us to explain events that had been, up to the latest discoveries, shrouded in mystery?
It is a remarkable fact that the record of some of these events should be found, not in church annals, calendars, or itineraries, but in passages in the writings of pagan annalists and historians. Thus, in ecclesiastical documents no mention is made of the conversion of the two Domitillæ, or Flavius Clemens, or Petronilla, all of whom were relatives of the Flavian emperors; and of the Acilii Glabriones, the noblest among the noble, as Herodianus calls them (2, 3). Their fortunes and death are described only by the Roman historians and biographers of the time of Domitian. It seems that when the official feriale, or calendar, was resumed, after the end of the persecutions, preference was given to names of those confessors and martyrs whose deeds were still fresh in the memory of the living, and of necessity little attention was paid to those of the first and second centuries, whose acts either had not been written down, or had been lost during the persecutions.
As the crypt of the Acilii Glabriones on the Via Salaria has become one of the chief places of attraction, since its re-discovery in 1888, I cannot begin this volume under better auspices than by giving an account of this important event.[2]
In exploring that portion of the Catacombs of Priscilla which lies under the Monte delle Gioie, near the entrance from the Via Salaria, de Rossi observed that the labyrinth of the galleries converged towards an original crypt, shaped like a Greek Γ (Gamma), and decorated with frescoes. The desire of finding the name and the history of the first occupants of this noble tomb, whose memory seems to have been so dear to the faithful, led the explorers to carefully sift the earth which filled the place; and their pains were rewarded by the discovery of a fragment of a marble coffin, inscribed with the letters: ACILIO GLABRIONI FILIO.
Tablet of Acilius Glabrio.
Did this fragment really belong to the Γ crypt, or had it been thrown there by mere chance? And in case of its belonging to the crypt, was it an isolated record, or did it belong to a group of graves of the Acilii Glabriones? The queries were fully answered by later discoveries; four inscriptions, naming Manius Acilius ... and his wife Priscilla, Acilius Rufinus, Acilius Quintianus, and Claudius Acilius Valerius were found among the débris, so that there is no doubt as to the ownership of the crypt, and of the chapel which opens at the end of the longer arm of the Γ.
The Manii Acilii Glabriones attained celebrity in the sixth century of Rome, when Acilius Glabrio, consul in 563 (b. c. 191), conquered the Macedonians at the battle of Thermopylai. We have in Rome two records of his career: the Temple of Piety, erected by him on the west side of the Forum Olitorium, now transformed into the church of S. Nicola in Carcere; and the pedestal of the equestrian statue, of gilt bronze, offered to him by his son, the first of its kind ever seen in Italy, which was discovered by Valadier in 1808, at the foot of the steps of the temple, and buried again. Towards the end of the republic we find them established on the Pincian Hill, where they had built a palace and laid out gardens which extended at least from the convent of the Trinità dei Monti to the Villa Borghese.[3] The family had grown so rapidly to honor, splendor, and wealth, that Pertinax, in the memorable sitting of the Senate in which he was elected emperor, proclaimed them the noblest race in the world.
The Glabrio best known in the history of the first century is Manius Acilius, who was consul with Trajan, a. d. 91. He was put to death by Domitian in the year 95, as related by Suetonius (Domit. 10): "He caused several senators and ex-consuls to be executed on the charge of their conspiring against the empire,—quasi molitores rerum novarum,—among them Civica Cerealis, governor of Asia, Salvidienus Orfitus, and Acilius Glabrio, who had previously been banished from Rome."
The expression molitores rerum novarum has a political meaning in the case of Cerealis and Orfitus, both staunch pagans, and a religious and political one in the case of Glabrio, a convert to the Christian faith, called nova superstitio by Suetonius and Tacitus. Other details of Glabrio's fate are given by Dion Cassius, Juvenal, and Fronto. We are told by these authors that during his consulship, a. d. 91, and before his banishment, he was compelled by Domitian to fight against a lion and two bears in the amphitheatre adjoining the emperor's villa at Albanum. The event created such an impression in Rome, and its memory lasted so long
Xiphilinus states that, in the year 95, some members of the imperial family were condemned by Domitian on the charge of atheism, together with other leading personages who had embraced "the customs and persuasion of the Jews," that is, the Christian faith. Manius Acilius Glabrio, the ex-consul, was implicated in the same trial, and condemned on the same indictment with the others. Among these the historian mentions Clemens and Domitilla, who were manifestly Christians. One particular of the case, related by Juvenal, confirms the account of Xiphilinus. He says that in order to mitigate the wrath of the emperor and avoid a catastrophe, Acilius Glabrio, after fighting the wild beasts at Albanum, assumed an air of stupidity. In this alleged stupidity it is easy to recognize the prejudice so common among the pagans, to whom the Christians' retirement from the joys of the world, their contempt of public honors, and their modest behavior appeared as contemptissima inertia, most despicable laziness. This is the very phrase used by Suetonius in speaking of Flavius Clemens, who was murdered by Domitian ex tenuissima suspicione, on a very slight suspicion of his faith.