The Project Gutenberg eBook, Primary Handwork, by Ella Victoria Dobbs
Title: Primary Handwork
Author: Ella Victoria Dobbs
Release Date: December 14, 2009 [eBook #30676]
Language: English
Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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PRIMARY HANDWORK
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN & CO., Limited
LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd.
TORONTO
HOUSE OF THE THREE BEARS
Built by first-grade class. Columbia, Missouri. See page 58.
PRIMARY HANDWORK
BY
ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, B.S., A.M.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MANUAL ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1923
All rights reserved
Copyright, 1914,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1914.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
DEDICATED TO
THE LITTLE CHILDREN OF AMERICA
WITH THE WISH
THAT ALL THEIR SCHOOL DAYS
MAY BE HAPPY DAYS
PREFACE
This book is the outgrowth of long experience as a teacher of primary grades, followed by special study of handwork as a factor in elementary education. It is written with three objects in view:
First, to gather into a single volume various methods already in use in the more progressive schools, and for which the best suggestions are scattered through current periodicals:
Second, to organize these methods and present them in a simple form for the use of teachers who have had no special training in handwork processes:
Third, accepting conditions as they exist in the small town school and the one-room country school, as a basis of organization, to offer suggestions which may be easily adapted to the conditions of any school with a view to bringing present practice into closer harmony with the best educational ideals.
No claim is laid to originality, beyond the small details in which one person's interpretation of a large problem will differ from that of another.
The projects here outlined have been tested in the Public Schools of Columbia, Missouri, under conditions which are common to towns of about the same size.
The point of view has been influenced chiefly by the educational philosophy of Prof. John Dewey, especially as expressed in his essay "The Child and the Curriculum." The author wishes here to make grateful acknowledgement to Dr. Dewey, not only for the helpfulness of his writings, but also for the inspiration of his teaching.
Thanks are also due to Dr. Naomi Norsworthy of Teachers College, and to Dean W. W. Charters of Missouri University, for encouragement in planning the book and for criticism of the manuscript. Especial acknowledgment is here made to Prof. R. W. Selvidge of Peabody College for Teachers, formerly of this University, for hearty coöperation and helpful suggestions in working out the problems described in this book, and to the teachers of the Columbia Schools for their most efficient services in testing these problems in their classrooms.
E. V. D.
University of Missouri,
February, 1914.
CONTENTS
chapter page I. Introduction 1 II. Paper Cutting and Poster Making 6 III. Booklets 17 IV. Criticism and Standards of Workmanship 24 V. The House Problem 27 VI. The Village StreetLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
page House of the Three Bears Frontispiece 1. Paper Cutting. First Grade 7 2. Paper Cutting. Second Grade 8 3. Paper Cutting. Second Grade 10 4. Paper Tearing 11 5. Paper Cutting. Third Grade 13 6. Paper Cutting. Fourth Grade 15 7. Pamphlet Sewing 22 8. Japanese Sewing 22 9. House arranged on a Shelf 28 10. A Medieval Castle 29 11. House arranged on a Table—Front View 32 12. House arranged on a Table—Side View 33 13. House arranged on a Table—Back View 34 14. House Plan 35 15. Arrangement of Windows 36 16. Detail of Hollow Square 38 17. Borders 39 18. Looms and Samples of Weaving 41 19. Box House by Second Grade 43 20. Detail for Paper Weaving 44 21. Furniture from Wood Blocks 48 22. Furniture from Wood Blocks 48 23. Home of White Cloud,
PRIMARY HANDWORK
PRIMARY HANDWORK
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In setting forth the plan and purpose of this little book the author wishes to lay equal emphasis on its limitations. The outlines and suggestions which follow are designed for the use of grade teachers who have had little or no training in handwork processes but who appreciate the necessity of making worthy use of the child's natural activity and desire to do. The outlines are arranged with reference to schools which are not provided with special equipment and which have scant funds for supplies. The projects require only such materials as empty goods boxes, and odds and ends of cloth and paper, which are easily obtainable in any community. No extra time is required for the work, and it may be successfully carried out by any teacher who is willing to devote a little study to the possibilities of things near at hand.
These outlines do not form a course of study to be followed in regular order nor in set lessons coming at a definite time. They are, rather, a series of suggestions to be used wherever and whenever they will serve a worthy purpose. They are not to be regarded as a special subject, having little or no connection with the regular class work, but rather as an illustrative method of teaching the regular subject matter whenever the teaching can be done more effectively by means of concrete illustrations. It is proposed to make greater use of construction as a medium of expression, and place making more nearly on a par with talking, writing, and drawing.
Any of the projects outlined may be modified to suit varying conditions, and the emphasis placed according to the needs of a particular class. All the suggestions are given in very simple form, chiefly from the standpoint of the first grade, for the reason that it is easier to add to the details of a simple problem than to simplify one which is complex.
It is not the purpose here to emphasize the training of the hand or the development of technique in handwork processes to the extent commonly expected of a course in manual arts, though considerable dexterity in the use of tools and materials will undoubtedly be developed as the work proceeds. While careless work is never to be tolerated in construction any more than it would be tolerated in writing or drawing, the standard is to be only such a degree of perfection as is possible through a child's unaided efforts. It is proposed to provide him with things to do of such interest to him that he will wish to do his best, and things of such a nature that they will please him best when they are well done, and so stimulate a genuine desire for good work. To this end the suggestions relate to things of immediate value and use to the children themselves, rather than to things commonly comprehended in a list of articles which are useful from the adult point of view.
The work is to be kept on a level with the child's experience and used as a means of broadening his experience and lifting it to a higher level. It must also be kept on the level of his constructive ability in order that he may do things by himself, and develop independence through feeling himself master of his tools. Neither patterns nor definite directions are provided for the details of the projects outlined, for the reason that it is desired to make every project a spontaneous expression of the child's own ideas. To this end the outline serves only as a framework, to be filled in as the worker desires. The ready-made pattern implies dictation on the part of the teacher and mechanical imitation and repetition on the part of the pupil,—a process almost fatal to spontaneous effort. While it is possible through a method of dictation to secure results which seem, at first, to be much better than the crude constructions which children are able to work out for themselves, it is only a superficial advantage, and one gained at the expense of the child's growth in power to think and act independently. It is an advantage closely akin to the parrotlike recitation of the pupil who catches a few glib phrases and gives them back without thought, as compared with the recitation of the pupil who thinks and expresses his thoughts in his own childish language.
These outlines are intended not only to emphasize independence in self-expression, but also to foster a social spirit through community effort and develop a sense of responsibility through division of labor. A child's shortcomings will be brought home to him much more vividly if he fails to contribute some essential assigned to him in the construction of a coöperative project, and thereby spoils the pleasure of the whole group, than when his failure affects only his individual effort in a group of duplicate projects.
These outlines are intended also to suggest a method of opening up to the children, in an attractive way, the great field of industry. Their deep interest in playing store leads easily to a study of the source, use, and value of various forms of merchandise and the essential features of various trades and occupations. Problems of this sort are fascinating to children in all the lower grades, are rich in valuable subject matter, and suggest things to do which are both interesting and worth while. Without attempting to exhaust any phase of the subject, they awaken an intelligent interest in the industrial world and tend to stimulate thoughtful observation. They help to give the children correct ideas about industrial processes as far as their knowledge goes, and to create a desire for further knowledge. This general information lays a good foundation for later and more serious study of the industries and the choice of a vocation.
These outlines are offered as a means of bridging the gap between the formal methods and outgrown courses of study still in use and the richer curriculum and more vital methods toward which we are working. Much time must be spent in study and experimentation before a satisfactory reorganization of the curriculum can be worked out. Without waiting until this work shall be wholly completed, it is possible at once to vitalize the most formal course of study through the use of freer methods, which permit and encourage self-directed activity on the part of the pupil.
CHAPTER II
PAPER CUTTING AND POSTER MAKING
Paper and scissors form a fascinating combination to all children, and offer a very direct means of self-expression. In the language of a small boy who attempted to tell how to do it, "You just think about something and then cut out your think." The teacher is concerned chiefly with the "think" and the way in which it is expressed. The children are interested in paper cutting chiefly from the pleasure of the activity. Beyond the immediate pleasure in the process, the cuttings are valuable only as they indicate the clearness of the child's ideas and measure his ability to express them. The process is educative only in so far as it helps the small worker to "see with his mind's eye" and to give tangible shape to what he thus sees. It is important, therefore, that the work be done in a way that will emphasize the thinking rather than the finished product.
The first question arising is, To what extent shall a pattern be used? Shall the teacher cut out the object and bid the class follow her example? Shall she display a silhouette or outline drawing of the object she desires the children to cut, or shall they work without any external guide to justify or modify the mental picture? Shall they be given a pattern and be allowed to draw around it?
All of the above methods are used to a greater or less extent. Long experience seems to indicate that the first cutting of any object should be unassisted by any external representation of it whatever, in order that the attention of each child may be focused upon his own mental picture of the object. When he has put forth his best effort from this standpoint, he should compare his cutting with the real object or a good picture of it and be led to see the chief defects in his own production and then allowed to try again.
Fig. 1.—Story of Jack Horner on poster and sand table.
Snowflakes in background. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.
For example, after telling the story of Mother Hubbard, the children may be interested in cutting out dogs. No picture or other guide should be used at first, since every child knows something about dogs. The first cuttings are likely to be very poor, partly because the children have not sufficient control over the scissors and largely because their ideas are very vague. In a general comparison of work they will help each other with such criticisms as, "This dog's head is too big." "That dog's legs are too stiff." They are then ready to try again. Only when they have reached the limit of their power to see flaws in their work do they need to compare it with the real dog or its picture. Only after a child has attempted to express his idea and has become conscious in ever so small a degree of the imperfection of his expression will he really be able to see differences between the real object and his representation of it, and thereby clarify his mental picture.
Fig. 2.—Paper cutting. Second grade, Columbia.
The child's imagination is so strong that he is apt to see his productions not as they are but as he means them to be, and he is unable to distinguish between the original and his copy of it. If the picture or silhouette is presented at first, his work becomes to a large extent mere copying rather than self-expression. If the teacher cuts out a dog and displays it as a sample, the class will be apt to see that piece of paper only and not a real dog. If the children are permitted to draw the outline either freehand or around a pattern, still less mental effort is required, and in cutting they see only the bit of line just ahead of the scissors and not the object as a whole.
Such methods (i.e. the use of outlines, silhouettes, etc.) will produce better immediate results. It will be easier to distinguish dogs and cats from cows and horses if a pattern is provided, but it will not produce stronger children. Such methods only defeat the chief purpose of the work, which is to stimulate the mental effort required to hold the mental image of the object in the focus of attention during the time required to reproduce it in the material form.
Fig. 3.—Paper cutting. Second grade.
It is also often asked whether the children shall always cut directly and without modification or whether they shall be permitted to trim off the imperfections of their first attempts. While any rule must always be interpreted in the light of immediate circumstances, it is generally best to cut directly, and after noting the defects, cut again. It is then possible to compare the several attempts and see if improvement has been made. Attention should be directed to the most glaring defect only, and an attempt made to correct it. For example, if the dog's head is too large, do not trim down, but cut another dog and try for better proportions. Compare the second attempt with the first, to measure improvement. Even little children can be taught to work in this thoughtful way, looking for the defects in their own work and making definite attempts to correct them. To this end much cutting from an unlimited supply of newspaper or scratch paper will accomplish more than a few exercises in better paper which must be trimmed and worked over for the sake of economy. If little children are allowed to trim off, they are apt, in the pure joy of cutting, to trim too much and lose the idea with which they started—a process which tends to vagueness rather than clearness. To prevent this it is often helpful to preserve both pieces of paper, i.e. the cutting and the hole. (See Fig. 4.)
Paper Tearing.—Paper tearing serves many of the same purposes sought in cutting, and has several strong points in its favor. Working directly with the finger tips tends to develop a desirable dexterity of manipulation. The nature of the process prevents the expression of small details and tends to emphasize bold outlines and big general proportions. Working directly with the fingers tends also to prevent a weak dependence upon certain tools and tends to develop power to express an idea by whatever means is at hand.
Fig. 4.—Paper tearing.
Posters.—The term "poster" as here used includes all mounted pictures made by children, such as cuttings,
A poster may be the work of one child or of a group. A single poster may tell the whole story, or a series of posters may be made to show a sequence of events. A series of posters may be bound together in book form. For poster making single sheets of paper, medium weight and of neutral tone, are needed. The sheets should be of uniform size for individual use so that they could be bound together if desired. For coöperative work and special problems larger sheets will be needed.
SUGGESTED PROBLEMS FOR PAPER WORK
Cutting out Pictures.—This serves well for first effort with scissors. The interest in the picture furnishes a motive, while the outline serves as a guide and allows the attention to be given wholly to the control of the scissors.
Free cutting of single objects—such as animals, fruits, trees, furniture, utensils, etc.—intensifies and clarifies mental pictures and stimulates observation if the child is led to express his own ideas first and then to compare his expression with the original and note his deficiencies. As far as possible choose objects with strong bold outlines for the first attempts. There should be some marked feature, such as Bunny's long ears, which calls for emphasis. To cut a circular piece of paper which might be an apple or a peach, a walnut or a tomato, will not aid much in clarifying a mental picture, while Bunny's long ears, even though crudely cut, will be more deeply impressed on the child's mind.
Illustrations for Stories.—Single Illustration.—After a story has been read aloud and the characters and events freely discussed by the class, each child may be encouraged to represent the part which has appealed to him—i.e. "cut what he wants to cut." After the cuttings are mounted they will probably form a series which will tell the whole story. When several children illustrate the same feature, it offers opportunity for comparison and judgment as to which ones have told the story most effectively. For example, in the story of the Three Bears, the cuttings may show the three bears in three relative sizes, the three chairs, the three beds, the table, and the three bowls of porridge. (See notes on Criticism.)
Fig. 5.—Free cutting. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.
Series.—Let each child select the two or three most important events in a story and illustrate these in a single poster or series of posters.
Community Poster.—A long story such as the "Old Woman and the Silver Sixpence" may be illustrated by the class as a whole, each child cutting some one feature. This requires attention to relative proportions so that the parts may be in harmony when assembled. Such posters may be used for wall decoration.
Charts.—Poster making may also include the making of charts containing samples of manufactured articles in various stages of development. For example, a chart on cotton might show raw cotton, cord, thread, cloth of various sorts, lace, paper, and other materials made from cotton. Such a chart might also include pictures of cotton fields, spinning and weaving machinery, and other related features.
Materials.—Too much can scarcely be said in favor of much cutting from an unlimited supply of common wrapping paper, newspaper, or other waste paper, in which the children are entirely unhampered by such injunctions as, "Be careful and get it just right the first time, because you can't have another paper if you waste this piece." The possible danger of cultivating wastefulness is less serious and more easily overcome than the very probable danger of dwarfing and cramping the power of expression. Here, if anywhere, the rule holds good that we learn to do by doing, and abundant practice is essential to success.
Black silhouette or poster paper is most effective when mounted, but is too expensive for general use in large classes.
Brown kraft paper and tailor's pattern paper serve well for both cuttings and mounts. Both of these papers may be had by the roll at a low cost. The tailor's paper comes in several dull colors, which make good mounts for cuttings from white scratch paper or the fine print of newspaper.
Bogus paper makes an excellent mount and is very inexpensive.
The Pasting Process.—To a large number of teachers the pasting lesson is a time to be dreaded and its results a cause of discouragement. Especially is this true if the class is large and the teacher attempts to have all the class pasting at one time. In many phases of school work it is so much easier to control forty or fifty children if they all act in unison that we are prone to use the method too often and apply it to forms of work much better managed by groups. The process of teaching little folks to paste is greatly simplified by the use of the group method.