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THE HERITAGE
OF DRESS
BEING NOTES ON THE HISTORY
AND EVOLUTION OF CLOTHES
BY
WILFRED MARK WEBB
FELLOW OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY OF LONDON
CURATOR OF ETON COLLEGE MUSEUM
WITH ELEVEN PLATES
AND ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-NINE FIGURES IN THE TEXT
LONDON
E. GRANT RICHARDS
1907
TO MY WIFE
HILDA E. WEBB
PREFACE
It would be difficult to find a subject of more universal interest than that of dress, and hosts of books have been written which deal with the attire that has been adopted at different times and by various nations or social classes. The ornamental and artistic sides of the question have also received much consideration, but the volumes that have appeared serve chiefly as works of reference. The present book aims at being of more immediate interest and usefulness; it starts with things as they are, and is really a popular contribution to the natural history of man.
On all sides the advantages of observation and the need for the nature-study method in education are being rightly urged, but there is a tendency to narrow the purview. Anything in our environment is worthy of notice, and though attention is well directed towards that which is least artificial, we should not leave man and his works altogether on one side. There is material for observation, research, and deduction, even in a bowler hat and a cut-away coat.
One of the pleasantest features in connection with the making of this book has been the kind and ready help which I have received from all sides. Here and there throughout the text the names of friends and correspondents who have given their assistance have been mentioned. To these I offer my hearty thanks, as well as to the following, who with suggestions, information, or with material for illustrations, have contributed in no small way to the interest of the book: Messrs. Fownes Brothers & Company, Mr. Allan A. Hooke, Mr. W. S. Ward, Mr. Karl, of Messrs. Nathan & Company, Messrs. Tress & Company, Messrs. Lincoln & Bennett, Mr. M. D. Hill, the Rev. A. W. Upcott, Head Master of Christ’s Hospital, Miss Clark, Miss Hodgson, the Rev. R. Ashington Bullen, Mr. Henry Miller, of the Church Association, Mr. Ravenscroft, of Messrs. Ede Sons & Ravenscroft, Mr. Paley Baildon, Mr. George Hertslet, of the Lord Chamberlain’s Office, Messrs. Wilkinson & Company, Mr. C. M. Mühlberg, Mr. W. S. Parker, of Messrs. Debenhams, Ltd., Capt. H. Trench, Major J. W. Mallet, of the Army and Navy Gazette, Mr. Basil White, of Messrs. Hawkes & Company, Mr. W. H. Jesson, Messrs. Souter & Company, Mr. William Lawrence, Mr. Heather Bigg, Dr. J. Cantlie, and the Rt. Hon. Viscountess Harberton.
A glance at the bibliography, which is given on pages 363-7, will show the principal books and papers to which reference has been made.
In connection with the illustrations, special thanks must be given to Monsieur Maurice Sand, the Editor of the Review of the University of Brussels, for his kind permission to reproduce a number of the figures used to illustrate a translation of Sir George Darwin’s article. These are Figures 14, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 30, 31, 33, 46, 48, 62, 63, and 82. Acknowledgments are due to Mr. St. John Hope for Figures 86-8, to Messrs. A. & C. Black for Figures 123 and 124 and 132 and 133, and to Messrs. Prewett & Co. for Figures 111 and 112.
For the original of Plate II, I am indebted to the kindness of Captain R. Ford, of Plate III to Mr. Henry Stevens; Plate IV has been taken from a brass rubbing in Rugby School Museum, through the kind offices of Mr. J. M. Hardwich. I have to thank Mr. R. Bamber for the original of Plate VIII, which was obtained through his instrumentality. Figure B of Plate IX was kindly contributed by the Rev. A. W. Upcott, Head Master of Christ’s Hospital, and Figures B and C on Plate X were copied from Moseley’s “Voyage of the ‘Challenger,’” by the kind permission of Mr. John Murray, while Figure D is due to the courtesy of General Robley. Plate XI is reprinted from The Reliquary, by the kind permission of Messrs. Bemrose and Sons, and the source of other illustrations is acknowledged beneath them, while the classic collection of pictures which were brought together by the late Mr. F. W. Fairholt to illustrate his “Costume in England” has proved, as will be seen, of the utmost service.
In conclusion, I have much pleasure in calling attention to the time and care which Mr. W. J. Webb has expended upon the figures, which are a feature of the book; and I must mention the willing help which I have been afforded in a number of details by Miss Amy Astbury and Mr. Bernard Weaver.
WILFRED MARK WEBB.
Odstock, Hanwell,
November, 1907.
CONTENTS
I THE THRALL OF DRESS PAGE The principles of evolution applied to clothes 1 II THE ORIGIN OF DRESS 6 III DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN COAT The ancestral shawl—Problematical buttons 15 IV BUTTONS AS CHRONICLES Episodes in the later history of the coat and cuffs 25 V COLLARS AND BANDS Nicks in coat lapels—The why and wherefore of the white shirt front 41 VI VESTIGES IN THE HAT How hats were evolved—Why plumes are on the left side—The growth of the busby—Helmets and cocked hats 49 VII SHOES AND STOCKINGS Early foot-gear—The origin of the clock—A modern imitation of tattooing—Gaily coloured garters 62 VIII PETTICOATS AND TROUSERS The belted plaid and kilt—Early skirts—The antiquity of trousers—Trouser stripes 72 IX COATS OF ARMS Signet rings—Armorial bearings—Escutcheons—Crests—Badges 83 X GLOVES AND MITTENS Origin of the baby’s glove—Fourchettes—The “points” on the backs of gloves 94 XI TAGS, PINS, AND BALDRICS Laces—The evolution and vagaries of the safety-pin—Primitive methods of carrying burdens as illustrated by muff-chains, baldrics, and yokes 100 XII ORNAMENTS Primitive necklaces—Finger rings—The origin of the hair comb—Buttons—Studs—Flowers—Feathers—Amulets 111 XIII HAIR DRESSING Head shaving—Wigs that are still worn—Roman curls and fringes 126
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class="x-ebookmaker-pageno" title="[xiii]"/> XIV SPECIAL DRESSES Fashions kept up by ceremonies—Survivals in special costume—Flowing garments 135 XV SERVANTS’ DRESS The prototypes of liveries—Reminiscences of George II and George III—Origin of the page-boy’s buttons—The jockey cap—Aprons 139 XVI COCKADES The cockade a degenerated chaperon—The varieties of the cockade—Cockade wearers 152 XVII CHILDREN’S DRESS Survivals in children’s dress—Special school costumes—The blue-coat boy—Public school boys—Adoption of special dress at girls’ schools 162 XVIII WEDDING GARMENTS The veil—Bridesmaids and bribery—Old shoes—Orange blossom 175 XIX MOURNING Colours associated with mourning—Widows’ weeds—Perennial mourning 181 XX COSTUME CONNECTED WITH RELIGION The surplice and “the cloth”—The civil origin of vestments—Fine vestments—Processional vestments, so called—Nuns’ dress—The choker 184 XXI SUNDAY CLOTHES The significance of Sunday clothes—The wearing of hats in church by ladies 205 XXII ACADEMICAL DRESS Gowns and hanging sleeves—The forerunner of the hood—The origin of the doctor’s hat—The evolution of the mortar-board 208 XXIII LEGAL DRESS Vestiges of the coif—Hoods and gowns—Signs of mourning 215 XXIV STATE AND COURT ATTIRE Coronation dress—Parliamentary robes—Mistakes in Court dress—Vestiges of the wig and of the chaperon—Court cards 221 XXV SURVIVALS IN MILITARY UNIFORMS Armour—Prickers for flint locks—Forage cords—Reminiscences of gallantry—Regimental badges—Courtship colours 233 XXVI NAVAL UNIFORM Supposed survivals—Petticoats and wide breeches 251 XXVII THE COSTUME OF PUPPETS Punch and Judy—Fashion dolls—Dolls in swaddling clothes—The Egyptian “shabbies” 253 XXVIII THE CLOWN AND PAINTING THE BODY The clown’s dress—Savage painting and survivals of it—Tattooing—Patches and false complexions—Masks 269 XXIX STAGE COSTUMES The harlequin, pantaloon, columbine, and acrobat 282 XXX NIGHTDRESS Bands on nightgowns—Nightcaps—Night attire worn in the streets 287 XXXI THE DRESS OF ANIMALS Natural representatives of clothes—Horse trappings—Amulets on harness—Dogs’ disguises—Fashions in the form of animals 291 XXXII COLOUR Importance of colour—Instinctive love of bright hues—Desirability of coloured clothes and gay scenes—Colour and complexion 305 XXXIII PATTERNS Ancient designs—Checks and tartans—Parti-coloured clothes—Evolution of ornamentation 311 XXXIV IMPRESSIONS TO BE GAINED FROM DRESS Clues from clothes—Individuality not disguised by them—Modern dress of other countries—Significance of clothes 315 XXXV THE EFFECT OF CLOTHES UPON THE INDIVIDUAL The origin of stays—Tight lacing no new thing—Its effects—Mr. Heather Bigg on the need for support—The ideal foot—Skull deformities—Padding 322 XXXVI FURTHER EFFECTS OF CLOTHES ON THE INDIVIDUAL Mental effects of different clothes—Preferences of girls for certain articles of dress—Movements that depend upon the presence or absence of clothes 339 XXXVII THE RISE AND FALL OF FASHIONS Reason why fashions are followed—Gay clothes seen when periods of depression are over—Condemnation of fashions by the clergy—Quakers—Sumptuary laws—The killing of fashions 343 XXXVIII DRESS REFORM Clothes to be avoided—Need for warmer garments—“Rational” dress for women 354 Conclusion 362 Bibliography 363 Index 369
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE FACING PAGE I. Very early man in Java. Illustrating the remarks in Chapter II, pages 6 and 7 Frontispiece II. A woman and a witch-doctor of Central Africa, showing the part that ornaments may play even when clothing is of the scantiest. (From a photograph by Captain Ford) 9 III. The silk vest worn by Charles I on the scaffold. Illustrating the sleeved tunic opening for a short distance down the front. (From a photograph by Mr. Henry Stevens) 18 IV. Reproduction of a brass to John Brandon and his two wives in the Church of St. Mary, King’s Lynn. Date, 1364. On the male figure, continuous rows of buttons run from the wrist to the elbow of the under-vest. The women wear the wimple and gorget or throat cloth 38 V. A Siamese Princess wearing trousers 81 VI. Two Padaung women, showing the numerous metal collars which they wear round their necks 114 VII. Methods of hairdressing, illustrated by Romano-Egyptian portrait models in the Myers Collection, Eton College Museum. (From photographs by Wilfred Mark Webb) 129 VIII. A barge girl, showing the costume worn on the canals. (From a photograph by Wakefield Brentford) 150 IX. Fig. A. The cap worn by the scholars of Christ’s Hospital until the middle of the nineteenth century. Fig. B. A scholar of Christ’s Hospital. (By the courtesy of the Rev. A. W. Upcott, M.A., Head Master of Christ’s Hospital) 167 X. Fig. A. The head of a clown, showing the painted face, the ruff, and the Elizabethan method of doing the hair. Fig. B. The face of a Japanese actor (after Moseley, by the courtesy of Mr. John Murray). Fig. C. The painted face of a paper figure which is burned at Chinese funerals (after Moseley, by the courtesy of Mr. John Murray). Fig. D. The tattooed head of a Moorish chief. (By the courtesy of General Robley) 270 XI. Wooden stay busks. These incidentally show survivals of primitive ornament. From The Reliquary, by kind permission of
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Messrs. Bemrose & Sons, Ltd. 326
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. PAGE 1. Drawing of a woman engraved by a cave man 9 2. Sketch showing the development of the tunic. In this stage it has no arms 17 3. Diagram showing the way in which a sleeved tunic is derived from the shawl 18 4. A smock frock 19 5. Jacket of a woman, made in one piece. Bronze stage of culture (after Worsaae) 19 6. Man’s dress showing buttons on the right side 20 7. Woman’s dress showing buttons on the left side 21 8. Diagram showing how a man does up a button. First stage 23 9. Diagram showing how a man does up a button. Second stage 23 10. Diagram showing how a woman does up a button. First stage 23 11. Diagram showing how a woman does up a button. Second stage 23 12. The buttons on the back of a policeman’s great-coat 26 13. The buttons that close the slit up the back of an ulster 27 14. A back view of a seventeenth-century coat showing the buttons and buttonholes 28 15. The tab and buttons on the back of a soldier’s great-coat which make a temporary waist 29 16. The buttons and tab on a tramway driver’s coat 31 17. An eighteenth-century coat with side buttons and tab 31 18. Side tabs and buttons at the back (after Racinet) 31 19. A coat worn at the end of the seventeenth century (after H. Bonnart) 32 20. A modern coat with side pockets 32 21. A footman’s coat, modern, with vestigial pocket flaps 33 22. Coat skirts buttoned back (after Hogarth) 33 23. A coat with the skirts buttoned back and showing the lining 34 24. A dress coat with skirts cut away 34 25. A modern coat cuff with buttons 35 26. Turned-back cuff, end of seventeenth century (after Bonnart) 35 27. A coat sleeve (after Hogarth) with horizontal row of buttons 36 28. Sleeve of a coat of the seventeenth century, reputed to have been worn by Charles I 36 29. The turned-back cuff of an overcoat, modern 37 30. A sleeve with vertical buttons and a turned-back cuff as well (from a uniform, after Hogarth) 37 31. The uniform of a coastguard officer of 1775 (after Racinet) 39 32. The nicks in the coat and waistcoat 41 33. A stage when the nick was useful (Lucien Bonaparte, after Paul Lacroix) 42 34. The “toothpick” on a dress coat 43 35. Modern bands 45 36. A blue-coat boy’s bands 45 37. A chorister of Jesus College, Cambridge, showing the collar worn until recently. (From a photograph, by the courtesy of Mr. H. Austin Wheaton) 45 38. A stage in the reduction of bands (portrait of Jan Steen from the Illustrated Magazine of Art) 46 39. Full-sized bands (portrait of John Pym from the Illustrated Magazine of Art) 46 40. A modern bandbox, now used for hats 47 41. Bands that survive at the present day 47 42. The turban of a Jewish priest (after Kitto) compared with the dome of the Mosque of Omar 50 43. A Siamese head-dress and a Pra Pang or votive spire (after P. A. Thompson) 51 44. A Gothic spire (St. Stephens, Caen) compared with the hennin (the latter after Fairholt) 51 45. Band with streamers fastening on the head-dress of an Egyptian woman. From a figure of the Sixth Dynasty, 3500 B.C. 52 46. A lady’s head-dress confined with a fillet, fourteenth century (after Viollet le Duc) 52 47. A sailor hat with band and streamers 53 48. A twelfth-century head-dress with streamers, from a MS. (after Viollet le Duc) 53 49. A modern Scotch cap with streamers 54 50. A mitre of the See of Durham showing the strings (after Millington) 54 51. Small vestigial bow of ribbon in a modern hat 55 52. A hat with the remains of lacing
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href="@public@vhost@g@gutenberg@html@files@42682@[email protected]#fig052" class="pginternal" tag="{http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml}a">55 53. A hunting hat with complete lacing inside 56 54. A disc of leather 57 55. The disc perforated and the lace inserted 57 56. The lace tightened to form a crown 57 57. The ends of the lace tied as a bow inside 57 58. A bow fastened to the lining of a lady’s hat 58 59. Plumes on the left side 58 60. The red Hungarian cap, which was the forerunner of the busby 59 61. A busby (of the Hon. Artillery Company) in which the cap is a vestige only 59 62. A fireman’s helmet (of the ancient Greek type) 60 63. Buttons so arranged that the broad brim of a hat can be fastened to the crown, thus forming a temporary “cock” (Hudibras, after Hogarth) 60 64. A modern boot decorated with perforations made in the leather 63 65. An ornamented Roman shoe, of two thicknesses 63 66. A Roman shoe of open-work leather 63 67. A hide shoe of pre-Roman type from Ireland (after Fairholt) 64 68. The original top boot with the upper part temporarily turned down 65 69. The modern top boot in which the upper part can no longer be turned up 66 70. Puttees 66 71. Leg bandages of a royal personage at the end of the tenth century (after Fairholt) 67 72. A stocking with clocks 68 73. An embroidered stocking showing the further evolution of the clock (date 1900) 69 74. An open-work stocking of 1905 69 75. A shawl used as a kilt by a chieftain of Denmark in the bronze stage of culture (after Worsaae) 73 76. A simple dress in the form of a petticoat from an Egyptian figure of the Sixth Dynasty (3500 B.C.), from the Myers collection in Eton College Museum 74 77. A Korean servant (after Hough) 75 78. A short kilt 76 79. A barbarian soldier wearing characteristic trousers (from a diptych of St. Paul, after Marriott) 78 80. A Saxon military man wearing wide trousers (from the Harleian MS., No. 603, after Fairholt) 79 81. A peasant woman of Champéry wearing trousers 80 82. A German Hussar of 1808 81 83. The crest on a modern signet ring 85 84. Sir Geoffrey Loutterell and the ladies of his family, showing the extent to which armorial bearings were worn in the middle of the fourteenth century. From a psalter, made for Sir Geoffrey (after Fairholt) 85 85. The crest and surcoat of Henry, first Duke of Lancaster, A.D. 1347. From the brass to Sir Hugh Hasting at Elsyng, Norfolk (after Charles Boutell) 86 86. The helmet and crest of the Black Prince. From “Vetusta Monumenta” (after St. John Hope) 88 87. The shield of the Black Prince. From “Vetusta Monumenta” (after St. John Hope) 89 88. The surcoat or jupon of the Black Prince. From “Vetusta Monumenta” (after St. John Hope) 89 89. The postilion of a Lord Mayor of London, wearing a crest upon his cap, and a coat of arms upon his sleeve (copied by permission from a plate published by the John Williamson Co., Ltd.) 92 90. A baby’s glove without separate fingers 95 91. The back of a woollen glove showing the three vestiges known as “points” 96 92. A modern kid glove showing the fourchettes or pieces between the fingers, which form three pointed V’s 97 93. Queen Elizabeth’s coronation glove, showing the stitching carried down on to the back. (From a photograph by the courtesy of Messrs. Fownes Brothers and Co.) 97 94. The glove of Anne, Queen Consort of James I, showing the embroidery on the fingers, which is the ancestor of the modern “points.” (From a photograph, by the courtesy of Messrs. Fownes Brothers and Co.) 99 95. A silk lace with simple metal tags 101 96. Ornamental metal tags on a velvet neck ribbon 101 97. A simple safety-pin 102 98. An Etruscan brooch or fibula, resembling a safety-pin. (In the collection of Major W. J. Myers in Eton College Museum) 103 99. The safety-pin in the waistband 103 100. The safety-pin grown larger and used for fastening on a hat 104 101. A muff-chain 105 102. A hawker, illustrating the primitive way of carrying a burden 107 103. A courier-bag supported by a baldric 107 104.
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colspan="2">An ornamental baldric of the early fifteenth century. (Royal MS. 15, D. 5, after Fairholt) 108 105. A lady’s dress, showing the part which is called a yoke, and recalls a primitive method of carrying burdens 109 106. A loom comb found in the Glastonbury lake dwellings (after Boyd Dawkins) 118 107. A modern comb for the hair 118 108. Two studs of bronze, seen from above and from the side, later Bronze Age (after Worsaae) 119 109. The “flash” of five black ribbons on the collar of the Welsh Fusiliers. A survival from the days of the pigtail 134 110. The modern groom, showing the belt to which ladies clung when riding on a pillion 140 111. A footman in plush breeches and with powdered hair. His “pouter” coat dates from the reign of George III. By the courtesy of Messrs. F. T. Prewett and Co. 141 112. A sheriff’s coachman with the full-skirted coat of the time of George II. By the courtesy of Messrs. Prewett and Co. 142 113. The wig-bag (a survival of the bag-wig) now seen on the back of the collar of the Lord Mayor’s coachman 143 114. A modern page-boy’s livery 145 115. The Dutch skeleton dress, fashionable for boys in 1826 145 116. The cockade known as the “large treble,” representing a survival of the chaperon 152 117. A “treble cockade” covered with black cloth for mourning. The concentric circles would appear to represent the twisted liripipe of the chaperon 154 118. Treble cockade used by Chelsea pensioners 155 119. The Regent cockade 155 120. Royal cockade for state occasions 155 121. Ordinary Royal cockade 155 122. Two stages in the evolution of the chaperon. Combined hood and cape 156 123. Enlargement of the peak of the hood to form the liripipe. (After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and C. Black) 156 124. Further development of the chaperon. Cape and liripipe made into a head-dress that can be altered at will 157 125. A chaperon ready made up, in order to save trouble. (After Calthrop, by kind permission of Messrs. A. and C. Black) 157 126. Dress worn by the girls at Coombe Hill School, Westerham. It is a modification of the Dervish Djibah 172 127. Dress worn by the girls at the Croft School, Betley, when at work 173 128. St. Gregory the Great with his father Gordianus, who was a senator, on his right, and his mother Sylvia on his left. This shows the similarity between ecclesiastical and civil costume in early times. From an authentic picture (after Marriott) 188 129. A priest in the vestments now worn at the celebration of the Eucharist 194 130. The coat of arms of Thomas à Becket, showing an archbishop’s pall 198 131. The head-dress of a nun showing the veil and breast-cloth derived from the wimple, the cap which represents the chin-cloth, together with the frontal and the hood 203 132. The head-dress of a lady of the time of Henry II. The wimple is shown covering the chin and head-bands (after Calthrop) 203 133. The chin-band and forehead strap after the wimple has been removed (after Calthrop) 203 134. Hanging sleeve of the fifteenth century 209 135. The hanging sleeve of a Chancellor of Oxford University 211 136. A college cap or trencher 214 137. Cranmer’s hat, illustrating a stage in the evolution of a mortar-board (after Fairholt) 214 138. The hat of a bishop of the Stuart Period showing a stage at which the stiffening now seen in the mortar-board was becoming necessary (after Fairholt) 214 139. The wig of a modern judge 216 140. The vestige of the coif from the wig of a serjeant-at-law 217 141. A barrister’s gown showing the vestigial hood and its streamer. The buttons and braid which once temporarily looped up the sleeves now fix it permanently 219 142. A Yeoman of the Guard of the present reign 224 143. The wig-bag or “flash” from a Court suit, showing the rosette held away and displaying the black silk bag. At the lower corners of the latter loops are seen, which are probably the remains of those through which a ribbon was passed, which went round the neck and fastened on the breast by a brooch 229 144. The hood from the mantle of a Knight of the Garter, showing the survival of the chaperon and its liripipe 230 145. Relic of chain mail on the shoulder of an Imperial Yeoman 233 146. Chain mail illustrated by the brass of Sir Richard de Trumpington, A.D. 1289 234 147. A reversion in military equipment. One of Cromwell’s Ironsides (1679), from a print. A Cavalryman sketched at Aldershot in 1901. Copied, by permission, from the Daily Mail 237 148. The prickers on the shoulder-belt of a Hussar, which survive from the time of flint-lock muskets 239 149. The Oscan Pulicinella of 1731, without a long nose. The dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after Riccoboni) 256 150. The Calabrian Giangurgolo of 1731, with the long nose. The dress is very similar to that figured in 1630 (after Riccoboni) 257 151. An ancient bronze statuette with the face and features of Punch (after Ficorroni)
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href="@public@vhost@g@gutenberg@html@files@42682@[email protected]#fig151" class="pginternal" tag="{http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml}a">258 152. A fourteenth-century puppet-show (from the MS. of the “Roman d’Alexandre”) 259 153. Punch, from the Punch and Judy Show, showing the ruff and other details of Elizabethan costume 263 154. Judy, from the Punch and Judy Show, with ruff, mob cap, and apron 263 155. The Beadle, from the Punch and Judy Show 264 156. The Doctor, from the Punch and Judy Show, with wig and white tie 264 157. A clown, showing a survival of an Elizabethan costume 270 158. The dress of a modern harlequin 284 159. A pantaloon, showing an Elizabethan costume of which Venetian breeches form part 285 160. The bands that survive on a lady’s nightdress 289 161. A woman’s nightcap, still worn in Wiltshire 289 162. A man’s nightcap, from Oxfordshire 290 163. An English horse amulet in the form of a crescent. The flat places near the tips of the horns are evidence that the form is derived from two boars’ tusks 294 164. An English horse amulet showing both the heart and the sun 296 165. The cowry-shell ornaments on the head of an officer’s charger of the 10th Hussars. The pendant recalls that on mules in Palestine 298 166. Cowry shells on an Eastern mule, hanging like the pendant of the 10th Hussars 299 167. Cowry shells on the head-stall of a camel from Palestine 299 168. A Merveilleuse (after A. Robida) 345 169. A modern family, consisting of the average-sized mother, the taller daughter, and the puny boy (from a drawing by Miss Audrey Watson in “Physical Efficiency,” by Dr. Cantlie, by kind permission of Messrs. Putnam’s Sons) 357