THE
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS
HAROLD WHETSTONE JOHNSTON
SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY
1909
(Scott, Foresman and Company)
SELECTED ORATIONS AND LETTERS OF CICERO
LATIN MANUSCRIPTS
THE METRICAL LICENSES OF VERGIL
SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY
TYPOGRAPHY BY
MARSH, AITKEN & CURTIS COMPANY, CHICAGO.
MEMOR
ACTAE NON ALIO REGE PUERTIAE
AMORIS CAUSA
D D D
PREFACE
In preparing this book I have had in mind the needs of three classes of students.
It is intended in the first place for seniors in high schools and freshmen in colleges, and is meant to give such an account of the Private Life of the Romans in the later Republic and earlier Empire as will enable them to understand the countless references to it in the Latin texts which they read in the class-room. It is hoped that the book contains all that they will need for this purpose and nothing that is beyond their comprehension.
It is intended in the second place for more advanced college students who may be taking lectures on the subjects of which it treats. The work of both teacher and student will be made less irksome and more effective if the student is aided in the taking of notes by even so general a knowledge of the subject (previously announced to the class) as is here given. This I know from actual experience with my own classes.
In the third place it is intended for readers and students of Roman history, who are engaged chiefly with important political and constitutional questions, and often feel the need of a simple and compact description of domestic life, to give more reality to the shadowy forms whose public careers they are following. Such students will find the Index especially useful.
The book is written as far as possible in English: that is, no great knowledge of Latin is presumed on the part of the reader. I have tried not to crowd the text with Latin words, even when they are immediately explained, and those given will usually be found worth remembering. Quotations from Latin authors are very few, and the references to their works, fewer still, are made to well-known passages only.
To every chapter are prefixed references to the standard secondary authorities in English and German. Primary sources are not indicated: they would be above the heads of the less advanced students, and to the more advanced the lecturer will prefer to indicate the sources on which his views are based. It is certain, however, that all these sources are indicated in the authorities named, and the teacher himself may occasionally find the references helpful.
The illustrations are numerous and are intended to illustrate. Many others are referred to in the text, which limited space kept me from using, and I hope that Schreiber's Atlas, at least, if not Baumeister's Denkmaeler, may be within the reach of students in class-room or library.
It goes without saying that there must be many errors in a book like this, although I have done my best to make it accurate. When these errors are due to relaxed attention or to ignorance, I shall be grateful to the person who will point them out. When they are due to mistaken judgment, the teacher will find in the references, I hope, sufficient authorities to convince his pupils that he is right and I am wrong.
THE INDIANA UNIVERSITY,
February, 1903.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.
Scope of the Book §1
Public and Private Antiquities §2
Antiquities and History §4
Antiquities and Philology §6
Sources §9
Reference Books §13
Systematic Treatises §14
Encyclopedic Works §15
Other Books §16
I. THE FAMILY.
The Household §17
The Splitting Up of a House §19
Other Meanings of Familia §21
Agnātī and Cognātī §23
Adfīnēs §26
The Family Cult §27
Adoption §30
The Patria Potestās §31
Extinction of the Potestās §34
Manus §35
Dominica Potestās §37
II. THE NAME.
The Triple Name §38
The Praenōmen §41
The Nōmen §46
The Cognōmen §48
Additional Names §51
Confusion of Names §55
Names of Women §57
Names of Slaves §58
Names of Freedmen §59
Naturalized Citizens §60
III. MARRIAGE AND THE POSITION OF WOMEN.
Early Forms of Marriage §61
Iūs Cōnūbiī §64
Nūptiae Iūstae §67
Betrothals §70
The Dowry §72
Essential Forms §73
The Wedding Day §75
The Wedding Garments §76
The Ceremony §79
The Wedding Feast §85
The Bridal Procession §86
The Position of Women §90
IV. CHILDREN AND EDUCATION.
Legal Status §94
Susceptiō §95
Diēs Lūstricus §97
The Bulla §99
Nurses §100
Playthings §102
Pets and Games §103
Home Training §104
Schools §108
Subjects Taught in Elementary Schools §110
Grammar Schools §112
Schools of Rhetoric §115
Travel §116
Apprenticeship §117
Remarks on the Schools
The Teacher §121
Schooldays and Holidays §122
The Paedagōgus §123
Discipline §124
End of Childhood §125
The Līberalia §127
V. DEPENDENTS: SLAVES AND CLIENTS. HOSPITES.
Growth of Slavery §129
Numbers of Slaves §131
Sources of Supply §134
Sales of Slaves §139
Prices of Slaves §140
Public and Private Slaves §141
Private Slaves §142
Industrial Employment §143
The Familia Rūstica §145
Farm Slaves §146
The Vīlīcus §148
The Familia Urbāna §149
Legal Status of Slaves §156
The Treatment of Slaves §158
Food and Dress §160
The Pecūlium §162
Punishments §166
Manumission §175
The Clients §176
The Old Clients §177
Mutual Obligations §179
The New Clients §181
Duties and Rewards §182
The Hospitēs §183
Hospitium §184
Obligations of Hospitium §185
VI. THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNITURE.
Domus §186
The Development of the House §188
The Vestibulum §194
The Ōstium §195
The Ātrium §196
The Change in the Ātrium §197
The Ālae §200
The Tablīnum §201
The Peristyle
Private Rooms §203
The House of Pansa §208
The Walls §210
Pariēs Caementīcius §211
Wall Facings §212
Floors and Ceilings §213
Roofs §214
The Doors §215
The Windows §217
Heating §218
Water Supply §219
Decoration §220
Furniture §222
Principal Articles §223
The Couches §224
The Chairs §225
Tables §227
The Lamps §228
Chests and Cabinets §230
Other Articles §232
The Street §233
VII. DRESS AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS.
Indūtus: The Subligaculum §235
The Tunic §236
Amictus: The Toga §240
Form and Arrangement §241
Kinds of Togas §246
The Lacerna §247
The Paenula §248
Other Wraps §249
Footgear: The Soleae §250
The Calceī §251
Coverings for the Head §252
The Hair and Beard §253
Jewelry §255
Dress of Women §257
The Tunica Interior §258
The Stola §259
The Palla §261
Shoes and Slippers §262
Dressing of the Hair §263
Accessories §266
Jewelry §267
Dress of the Children and Slaves
Materials §269
Colors §270
Manufacture §271
VIII. FOOD AND MEALS.
Natural Conditions §272
Fruits §274
Garden Produce §275
Meats §277
Fowl and Game §279
Fish §280
Cereals §282
Preparation of the Grain §283
Breadmaking §287
The Olive §289
Olive Oil §291
Grapes §293
Viticulture §294
Vineyards §295
Wine Making §296
Beverages §298
Style of Living §299
Hours for Meals §301
Breakfast and Luncheon §302
The Formal Meal §303
The Dining Couch §304
Places of Honor §305
Other Furniture §307
Courses §308
Bills of Fare §309
Serving the Dinner §310
The Comissātiō §312
The Banquets of the Rich §315
IX. AMUSEMENTS; BATHS.
General §316
Sports of the Campus §317
Games of Ball §318
Games of Chance §319
Knuckle-bones §320
Dice §321
Public and Private Games §322
Dramatic Performances §323
Staging the Play §324
The Early Theater §325
The Later Theater §326
Roman Circuses
Plan of the Circus §330
The Arena §332
The Barriers §333
The Spīna and Mētae §335
The Seats §337
Furnishing the Races §339
The Teams §340
The Drivers §341
Famous Aurīgae §342
Other Shows of the Circus §343
Gladiatorial Combats §344
Popularity of the Combats §346
Sources of Supply §347
Schools for Gladiators §349
Places of Exhibition §351
Amphitheaters at Rome §352
The Amphitheater at Pompeii §353
The Coliseum §356
Styles of Fighting §359
Weapons and Armor §360
Announcement of the Shows §361
The Fight Itself §362
The Rewards §363
Other Shows in the Amphitheater §364
The Daily Bath §365
Essentials for the Bath §366
Heating the Bath §368
The Caldārium §369
The Frīgidārium and Ūnctōrium §370
A Private Bathhouse §371
The Public Baths §372
Management §373
Hours Opened §374
Accommodations for Women §375
Thermae §376
Baths of Diocletian §378
X. TRAVEL AND CORRESPONDENCE. BOOKS.
In General §379
By Water §380
By Land §381
The Vehicles §382
Carriages §383
The Rēda and Cisium
The Roads §385
Construction §387
The Inns §388
Speed §389
Sending Letters §390
Writing the Letters §391
Sealing and Opening the Letters §392
Books §393
Manufacture of Paper §394
Pens and Ink §395
Making the Roll §396
Size of the Rolls §398
Multiplication of Books §399
Commercial Publication §400
Rapidity and Cost of Publication §401
Libraries §402
XI. SOURCES OF INCOME AND MEANS OF LIVING. THE ROMAN'S DAY.
In General §403
Careers of the Nobles §404
Agriculture §405
Political Office §406
The Law §407
The Army §408
Careers of the Equites §409
The Soldiers §410
The Proletariate §411
Professions and Trades §412
Business and Commerce §413
The Civil Service §414
The Roman's Day §415
Hours of the Day §417
XII. BURIAL-PLACES AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES.
Importance of Burial §419
Interment and Cremation §420
Places of Burial §421
The Tombs §422
The Potter's Field §423
Plan of Tombs and Grounds §425
Exterior of the Tombs §427
The Columbāria §428
Burial Societies §430
Funeral Ceremonies §432
At the House
The Funeral Procession §434
The Funeral Oration §435
At the Tomb §436
After Ceremonies §437
Memorial Festivals §438
THE PRIVATE LIFE OF THE ROMANS
INTRODUCTION
1 The topics that are discussed in this book have to do with the everyday life of the Roman people. Such things will be considered as the family, the Roman name, marriage and the position of women, children and education, slaves, clients, the house and its furniture, clothing, food and meals, amusements, travel and correspondence, funeral ceremonies and burial customs, etc. These things are of interest to us in the case of any ancient or foreign people; in the case of the Romans they are of especial importance, because they help to explain the powerful influence which that nation exerted over the old world, and make it easier to understand why that influence is still felt in some degree to-day.
2 Public and Private Antiquities.—The subjects that have been named above belong to what is called Classical Antiquities, taking their place in the subdivision of Roman Antiquities as opposed to Greek Antiquities. They are grouped loosely together as Private Antiquities in opposition to what we call Public Antiquities. Under the latter head we consider the Roman as a citizen, and we examine the several classes of citizens, their obligations and their privileges; we study the form of their government, its officers and machinery, its legislative, judicial, and executive procedure, its revenues and expenditures, etc. It is evident that no hard and fast line can be drawn between the two branches of the subject: they cross each other at every turn. One scarcely knows, for example, under which head to put the religion of the Romans or their games in the circus.
3 In the same way, the daily employment of a slave, his keep, his punishments, his rewards, are properly considered under the head of Private Antiquities. But the state undertook sometimes to regulate by law the number of slaves that a master might have, the state regulated the manumission of the slave and gave him certain rights as a freedman, and these matters belong to Public Antiquities. So, too, a man might or might not be eligible to certain state offices according to the particular ceremony used at the marriage of his parents. It will be found, therefore, that the study of Private Antiquities can not be completely separated from its complement, though in this book the dividing line will be crossed as seldom as possible.1
1 Students in secondary schools will find useful for preliminary reading the outline of the Roman Constitution in the Introduction to the author's "Selected Orations and Letters of Cicero." For more advanced students three books have lately appeared on this subject: Abbott's "Roman Political Institutions," Granrud's "Roman Constitutional History," and Greenidge's "Roman Public Life."
4 Antiquities and History.—It is just as impossible to draw the boundary line between the subjects of Antiquities and History. The older history, it is true, concerned itself little with the private life of the people, almost solely with the rise and fall of dynasties. It told us of kings and generals, of the wars they waged, the victories they won, and the conquests they made. Then, in course of time, institutions took the place of dynasties and parties the place of heroes, and history traced the growth of great political ideas: such masterpieces as Thirlwall's and Grote's histories of Greece are largely constitutional histories. But changes in international relations affect the private life of a people as surely, if not as speedily, as they affect the machinery of government. You can not bring into contact, friendly or unfriendly, two different civilizations without a change in the peoples concerned, without altering their occupations, their ways of living, their very ideas of life and its purposes. These changes react in turn upon the temper and character of a people, they affect its capacity for self-government and the government of others, and in the course of time they bring about the movements of which even the older history took notice. Hence our recent histories give more and more space to the life of the common people, to the very matters, that is, that were mentioned in the first paragraph as belonging to Private Antiquities. This may be seen in such titles as these: Green's "History of the English People," McMaster's "History of the People of the United States."
5 On the other hand it is equally true that a knowledge of political history is necessary for the study of Private Antiquities. We shall find the Romans giving up certain ways of living and habits of thinking that seemed to have become fixed and characteristic. These changes we could not explain at all, if political history did not inform us that just before they took place the Romans had come into contact with the widely different ideas and opposing civilizations of other nations. The most important event of this sort was the introduction of Greek culture after the Punic wars, and to this we shall have to refer again and again. It follows from all this that students who have had even the most elementary course in Roman history have already some knowledge of Private Antiquities, and that those who have not studied the history of Rome at all will find very helpful the reading of even the briefest of our school histories.
6 Antiquities and Philology.—The subject of Classical Antiquities has always been regarded as a branch—"discipline" is the technical word—of Classical Philology since Friedrich August Wolf (1759-1824) made Philology a science. It is quite true that in the common acceptation of the word Philology is merely the science of language, but even here Antiquities has an important part to play. It is impossible to read understandingly an ode of Horace or an oration of Cicero, if one is ignorant of the social life and the political institutions of Rome. But Classical Philology is much more than the science of understanding and interpreting the classical languages. It claims for itself the investigation of Greek and Roman life in all its aspects, social, intellectual, and political, so far as it has become known to us from the surviving literary, epigraphic, and monumental records. Whitney puts it thus: Philology deals with human speech and with all that speech discloses as to the nature and history of man. If it is hard to remember these definitions one can hardly forget the epigram of Benoist: Philology is the geology of the intellectual world. Under this, the only scientific conception of Philology, the study of
7 But it happens that the study of the languages in which the records of classical antiquity are preserved must first occupy the investigator, and that the study of language as mere language, its origin, its growth, its decay, is in itself very interesting and profitable. It happens, moreover, that the languages of Greece and Rome can not be studied apart from literatures of singular richness, beauty, and power, and the study of literature has always been one of the most attractive and absorbing to cultivated men. It is not hard to understand, therefore, why the study of Antiquities has not been more prominent in connection with philological training. It was the end to which only the few pressed on. It was reserved, at least in systematic form, for the trained scholar in the university. In the congested condition of the old curricula in our colleges it was crowded out by the more obvious, but not more essential or interesting, subjects of linguistics and literary criticism, or it was presented at best in the form of scrappy notes on the authors read in the classroom or in the dismembered alphabetical arrangement of a dictionary.
8 Within the last few years, however, a change has been taking place, a change due to several causes. In the first place, the literary criticism which was once taught exclusively in connection with classical authors and which claimed so large a part of the time allotted to classical study has found a more appropriate place in the departments of English that were hardly known a generation ago. In the second place, the superior preparation in the classics now demanded for admission to our colleges has relieved their courses of much elementary linguistic drill that was formerly necessary. In the third place, the last half century has seen a greater advance in the knowledge of Antiquities than all the years before, and it is now possible to present in positive dogmatic form much that was recently mere guesswork and speculation. Finally, modern theories of education, which have narrowed the stream of classical instruction only to deepen its channel and quicken its current, have caused more stress to be laid upon the points of contact between the ancient and the modern world. The teacher of the classics has come to realize that the obligations of the present to the past are not to be so clearly presented and so vividly appreciated in connection with the formal study of art and literature as in the investigation of the great social, political, and religious problems which throughout all the ages have engaged the thought of cultivated men.
9 Sources.—It has been already remarked (§6) that Classical Philology draws its knowledge from three sources, the literary, epigraphic, and monumental remains of Greece and Rome. It is necessary that we should understand at the outset precisely what is meant by each of these. By literary sources we mean the writings of the Greeks and Romans, that is, the books which they published, that have come down to us. The form of these books, the way they were published and have been preserved, will be considered later. For the present it is sufficient to say that a mere fraction only of these writings has come down to our day, and that of these poor remnants we possess no originals but merely more or less imperfect copies. It is true, nevertheless, that these form as a whole the most important of our sources of information, largely because they have been most carefully studied and are best understood.
10 By epigraphic sources we mean the words that were written, scratched, cut, or stamped on hard materials, such as metal, stone, or wood, without thought of literary finish. These vary from single words to records of very considerable extent, and are briefly called inscriptions. The student may get a good idea of the most ancient and curious by merely turning over a few pages of Ritschl's "Priscae Latinitatis Monumenta Epigraphica" or of Egbert's "Latin Inscriptions." Of one sort of great importance, the legends on coins and medals, many have found their way into American museums. With modern inscriptions on similar materials and for similar purposes every student is, of course, familiar.
11 By monumental evidence we mean all the things actually made by the Greeks and Romans that have come down to us. These things are collectively very numerous and of very many kinds: coins, medals, pieces of jewelry, armor, pottery, statues, paintings, bridges, aqueducts, fortifications, ruins of cities, etc. It is impossible to enumerate them all. It is upon such remains as these that most of the inscriptions mentioned above are preserved. Of the most importance for the study of the private life of the Romans are the ruins of the city of Pompeii preserved to us by the protection of the ashes that buried it at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius in the year 79 A.D.
12 It will be seen at once that the importance of these sources will vary with the nature of the subject we are studying and the fullness of their preservation. For example, we may read in a Roman poet a description of an ornament worn by a bride. A painting of a bride wearing such an ornament would make the description clearer, but any doubt that might remain would be removed if there should be found in the ruins of Pompeii a similar ornament with its character proved by an inscription upon it. In this case the three sources would have contributed to our knowledge. For other matters, especially intangible things, we may have to rely solely upon descriptions, that is, upon literary sources. But it may well happen that no Roman wrote a set description of the particular thing that we are studying, or if he did that his writings have been lost, so that we may be forced to build up our knowledge bit by bit, by putting together laboriously the scraps of information, mere hints perhaps, that we find scattered here and there in the works of different authors, and these perhaps of very different times. It is not hard to understand, therefore, that our knowledge of some things pertaining to Roman antiquities may be fairly complete, while of others we may have no knowledge at all. It may be worth remarking of literary sources that the more common and familiar a thing was to the ancients, the less likely is it that we shall find a description of it in ancient literature.