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V. Last Years.—Chaucer, King of Letters—His retreat in St. Mary's, Westminster—His death—His fame 341
CHAPTER III. THE GROUP OF POETS. Coppice and forest trees 344 I. Metrical Romances.—Jugglers and minstrels—Their life, deeds, and privileges—Decay of the profession towards the time of the Renaissance—Romances of the "Sir Thopas" type—Monotony; inane wonders—Better examples: "Morte Arthure," "William of Palerne," "Gawayne and the Green Knight"—Merits of "Gawayne"—From (probably) the same author, "Pearl," on the death of a young maid—Vision of the Celestial City 344 II. Amorous Ballads and Popular Poetry.—Poetry at Court—The Black Prince and the great—Professional poets come to the help of the great—The Pui of London; its competitions, music and songs—Satirical songs on women, friars, fops, &c. 352 III. Patriotic Poetry.—Robin Hood—"When Adam delved"—Claims of peasants—Answers to the peasants' claims—National glories—Adam Davy—Crécy, Poictiers, Neville's Cross—Laurence Minot—Recurring sadness—French answers—Scottish answers—Barbour's "Bruce"—Style of Barbour—Barbour and Scott 359 IV. John Gower.—His origin, family, turn of mind—He belongs to Angevin England—He is tri-lingual—Life and principal works—French ballads—Latin poem on the rising of the peasants, 1381, and on the vices of society—Poem in English, "Confessio Amantis"—Style of Gower—His tales and exempla—His fame 364
CHAPTER IV. WILLIAM LANGLAND AND HIS VISIONS. Langland first poet of the period after Chaucer 373 I. Life and Works.—A general view—Birth, education, natural disposition—Life at Malvern—His unsettled state of mind—Curiosities and failures—Life in London—Chantries—Disease of the will—Religious doubts—The faith of the simple—His book a place of refuge for him 374 II. Analysis of the Visions.—The pilgrims of Langland and the pilgrims of Chaucer—The road to Canterbury and the way to Truth—Lady Meed; her betrothal, her trial—Speech of Reason—The hero of the work, Piers the Plowman—A declaration of duties—Sermons—The siege of hell—The end of life 382 III. Political Society and Religious Society.—Comparison with Chaucer—Langland's crowds—Langland an insular and a parliamentarian—The "Visions" and the "Rolls of Parliament" agree on nearly all points—Langland at one with the Commons—Organisation of the State—Reforms—Relations with France, with the Pope—Religious buyers and sellers—The ideal of Langland 388 IV. Art and Aim.—Duplication of his personality—"Nuit de Décembre"—Sincerity—Incoherences—Scene-shifting—Joys forbidden and allowed—A motto for Langland—His language, vocabulary, dialect, versification—Popularity of the work—Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries—Time of the Reformation 394
CHAPTER V. PROSE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. The "father of English prose" 403 I. Translators and Adaptators.—Slow growth of the art of prose—Comparison with France; historians and novelists—Survival of Latin prose—Walsingham and other chroniclers—Their style and eloquence—Translators—Trevisa—The translation of the Travels of "Mandeville"—The "Mandeville" problem—Jean de Bourgogne and his journey through books—Immense success of the Travels—Style of the English translation—Chaucer's prose 404 II. Oratorical Art.—Civil eloquence—Harangues and speeches—John Ball—Parliamentary eloquence—A parliamentary session under the Plantagenet kings—Proclamation—Opening speech—Flowery speeches and business speeches—Debates—Answers of the Commons—Their Speaker—Government orators, Knyvet, Wykeham, &c.—Opposition orators, Peter de la Mare—Bargains and remonstrances—Attitude and power of the Commons—Use of the French language—Speeches in English 412 III. Wyclif. His Life.—His parentage—Studies at Oxford—His character—Functions and dignities—First difficulties with the religious authority—Scene in St. Paul's—Papal bulls—Scene at Lambeth—The "simple priests"—Attacks against dogmas—Life at Lutterworth—Death 422 IV. Latin Works of Wyclif.—His Latin—His theory of the Dominium—His starting-point: the theory of Fitzralph—Extreme, though logical, consequence of the