in July and August, dried in the sun, and used to dye wool, without any preparation. The crottle is put into the bath with a sufficient quantity of water, boiled up, allowed to cool, then boiled up with the wool until the shade required is got. This may take from one to three or four hours, as the dye is not rapidly taken up by the wool. Other dyers use it in the following way: A layer of crottle, a layer of wool, and so on until the bath is full; fill with cold water and bring to the boil, and boil till the colour is deep enough. The wool does not seem to be affected by keeping it in the dye a long time. A small quantity of acetic acid put with the Lichen is said to assist in exhausting the colour.

The grey Lichen, Ramalina scopulorum dyes a fine shade of yellow brown. It grows very plentifully on old stone walls, especially by the sea, and in damp woods, on trees, and on old rotten wood. Boil the Lichen up in sufficient water one day, and the next put in the wool, and boil up again till the right colour is got. If the wool is left in the dye for a day or more after boiling it absorbs more colour, and it does not hurt the wool but leaves it soft and silky to the touch, though apt to be uneven in colour. Some mordant the wool first with alum, but it does not seem to need it.

The best known of the dye Lichens are Parmelia saxatilis and Parmelia omphalodes which are still largely used in Scotland and Ireland for dyeing wool for tweeds. The well-known Harris tweed smell is partly due to the use of this dye.

Other Lichens also known for their dyeing properties are: Parmelia caperata, or Stone Crottle, which contains a yellow dye, P. ceratophylla, or Dark Crottle, and P. parietina, the common wall Lichen, which gives a colour similar to that of the Lichen itself, yellowish brown. A deep red colour can be got from the dull grey friable Lichen, common on old stone walls. The bright yellow Lichen, growing on rocks and walls, and old roofs, dyes a fine plum colour, if the wool is mordanted first with Bichromate of Potash.

In Sweden, Scotland and other countries the peasantry use a Lichen, called Lecanora tartarea to furnish a red or crimson dye. It is found abundantly on almost all rocks, and also grows on dry moors. It is collected in May and June, and steeped in stale urine for about three weeks, being kept at a moderate heat all the time. The substance having then a thick and strong texture, like bread, and being of a blueish black colour, is taken out and made into small cakes of about 3/4 lb. in weight, which are wrapped in dock leaves and hung up to dry in peat smoke. When dry it may be preserved fit for use for many years; when wanted for dyeing it is partially dissolved in warm water; 5 lbs. of Korkalett is considered sufficient for about 4 Scotch ells of cloth. The colour produced is a light red. It is used in the dyeing of yarn as well as of cloth.

In Shetland, the Parmelia saxatilis (Scrottyie) is used to dye brown. It is found in abundance on argillaceous rocks. It is considered best if gathered late in the year, and is generally collected in August.

Linnaeus mentions that a beautiful red colour may be prepared from the Lichen Gyrophora pustulata. G. Cylindrica is used by Icelanders for dyeing woollen stuffs a brownish green colour. In Sweden and Norway, Evernia vulpina is used for dyeing woollen stuffs yellow. Iceland Moss, Cetraria Islandica, is used in Iceland for dyeing brown. Usnea barbata is collected from trees in Pennsylvania, and used for an orange colour for yarn.

A general method for using lichens is suggested by Dr. Westring of Sweden in his Experiments on Lichens for Dyeing Wools and Silks:

This method can be followed by anyone wishing to experiment with Lichens.

Dr. Westring did not use a mordant as a rule. Where the same species of Lichen grows on both rocks and trees, the specimens taken from rocks give the better colours.

Orchil or Archil and Cudbear are substantive or non mordants dyes, obtained from Lichens of various species of Roccella growing on rocks in the Canary Islands and other tropical and sub-tropical countries. They used to be made in certain parts of Great Britain from various lichens, but the manufacture of these has almost entirely disappeared. They have been known from early times as dyes. They give beautiful purples and reds, but the colour is not very fast. The dye is produced by the action of ammonia and oxygen upon the crushed Lichens or weeds as they are called. The early way of producing the colour was by treating the Lichen with stale urine and slaked lime and this method was followed in Scotland. Orchil is applied to wool by the simple process of boiling it in a neutral or slightly acid solution of the colouring matter. 3% Sulphuric acid is a useful combination. Sometimes alum and tartar are used. It dyes slowly and evenly. It is used as a bottom for Indigo on wool and also for compound shades on wool and silk. For cotton and linen dyeing it is not used. It is rarely used by itself as the colour is fugitive, but by using a mordant of tin, the colour is made much more permanent.

Many of the British lichens produce colours by the same treatment as is used for producing Orchil. Large quantities were manufactured in Scotland from lichens gathered in the Shetlands and Western Highlands. This was called Cudbear. The Species used by the Scottish Cudbear makers were generally Lecanora tartarea and Urceolaria calcarea; but the following lichens also give the purple colour on treatment with ammonia:—Evernia prunastri, Lecanora pallescens, Umbilicaria vellea, U. pustulata, Parmelia perlata. Several others give colours of similar character, but of little commercial value. The manufacture of Archil and Cudbear from the various lichens is simple in principle. In all cases the plant is reduced to a pulp with water and ammonia, and the mass kept at a moderate heat and allowed to ferment, the process taking two or three weeks to complete.

RECIPES FOR DYEING WITH LICHENS

To dye Brown with Crotal. For 6-1/4 lbs. (100 ozs.) of wool. Dye baths may be used of varying strengths of from 10 to 50 ozs. of Crotal. Raise the bath to the boil, and boil for an hour. A light tan shade is got by first dipping the wool in a strong solution of Crotal, a darker shade by boiling for half-an-hour, and a dark brown by boiling for two hours or so. It is better, however, to get the shade by altering the quantity of Crotal used. The addition of sufficient oil of vitriol or acetic acid to make the bath slightly acid will be an improvement (a very small quantity should be used).

To dye red with Crotal. Gather the lichen off the rocks—it is best in winter. Put layers of lichen and wool alternately in a pot, fill up with water and boil until you get the desired tint. Too much crotal will make the wool a dark red brown, but a very pretty terra cotta red can be got. No mordant is required.

To dye Pink from a bright yellow Lichen (Parmelia parietina). Mordant the wool with 3% of Bichromate of Potash, then boil with the