stated however in this connection, that there seems to be a strong tendency at the present time toward the centralizing of control in the states. This has been brought about in large measure through the ever-increasing willingness on the part of the state to give financial backing to the schools, and thus has quite naturally arisen the desire and necessity on the part of the state, that it have a controlling voice in the school administration. Herein lies one of the main differences between such education in Germany and that of our own country.

Conrad’s Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, 1900, in an article entitled “Gewerblicher Unterricht”, gives the following table on state expenditure for trade and technical instruction in recent years:

Prussia:

• Marks 142,000 ($33,796) in 1874;
• Marks 475,000 ($114,050) in 1885;
• Marks 4,672,000 ($1,111,936) in 1899.

Saxony:

• Marks 235,000 ($60,214) in 1873;
• Marks 570,000 ($135,660) in 1885;
• Marks 1,138,000 ($270,844) in 1898.

Wurttemburg industrial continuation school:

• Marks, 58,000 ($13,804) in 1869;
• Marks 129,000 ($30,702) in 1879;
• Marks 164,000 ($39,032) in 1889;
• Marks 208,000 ($49,504) in 1897.

The cost of the state per capita of the population of the expenditures was as follows:

• Prussia, Pfennigs 15 (3½ cts.) in 1899;
• Saxony, Pfennigs 29 (7 cts.) in 1898;
• Hesse, Pfennigs 22 (5 cts.) in 1898.

The cost per Marks 1,000 ($236) of the entire state expenditures was Marks 2.27 (54 cts.) in Prussia in 1899, and Marks 5.88 ($1.40) in Saxony in 1898.

In general the German schools are classified upon a basis of the grade of instruction given rather than upon the character of the subjects taught. Primary education is compulsory, that is to say, all children are compelled by law to attend school from their sixth to their fourteenth year. It is at this point that we find our difficulty. To quote Dr. Alwin Pabst of Leipzig (who speaks of conditions governing technical schools):

“The age of admission, length of course, fees and other conditions (examinations) of these schools differ widely. Ages range from fourteen to thirty years or over; length of course, one to four or five years; fees perhaps twenty to thirty marks per year. The Fortbildungsschule is the only institution in which no fee is charged.” (Taken from a personal letter.)

Several classifications commend themselves for use. Each has its weaknesses and breaks down at some point, owing to the conditions previously mentioned. In order the better to illustrate this difficulty I shall give these various possible classifications.

The first refers chiefly to the scheme of secondary education and was the one first chosen and later discarded. It was suggested mainly by Sir Philip Magnus’s work on “Industrial Education” and the “Report of the Industrial Commission”, Vol. 1.

• 1. Industrieschulen
  • Gewerbeschulen
• 2. Trade Schools
  • Fachschulen
• 3. Building Trade Schools
• 4. Secondary Technical Schools
  • Higher Technical
  • Foremen
  • Building
  • Weaving
  • Drawing
• 5. Industrial Art Schools (Kunstgewerbe)
  • Pure Art
  • Applied Art
• 6. Polytechnics or Technische Hochschulen
• 7. Continuation Schools—Fortbildungsschulen

Another classification, suggested in most part by a German authority is as follows:

• 1. Fortbildungsschulen—Continuation schools
• 2. Industrie—or Fachschulen—Special Trade Schools
• 3. Gewerbeschulen
• 4. Technische Schulen
• 5. Technische Hochschulen
• 6. Baugewerkschulen—School for Architects
• 7. Kunstgewerbeschulen—Schools of Art

In the Seventeenth Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor for 1902 we find the following:

• 1. Technical Colleges
• 2. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools
• 3. Schools and Museums of Industrial Art
• 4. Schools for Foremen
• 5. Schools for the Textile Trades
• 6. Trade and Industrial Continuation Schools
• 7. Industrial Drawing Courses
• 8. Other Institutions for Industrial Education.

The order followed in the present study is finally given below. It is one not to be found elsewhere, but more closely resembles that of Dr. Pabst (the second classification) and that found in the Seventeenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor. It has undoubtedly its weak points, but I feel it is the best that can be made however, as it is based upon data recently published, and the results of correspondence with German school authorities, in addition to a not very extended knowledge gained through personal contact with the German schools. It may be taken therefore, as bringing the work down to the present time:

• 1. Continuation Schools or Fortbildungsschulen
• 2. Trade Schools or Fachschulen
• 3. Secondary or Intermediate Technical Schools or Gewerbliche Mittelschulen
• 4. Technical Colleges or Technische Hochschulen
• 5. School and Museums of Industrial Art, or Kunstgewerbeschulen

II

Continuation Schools
Fortbildungsschulen

Since at the age of fourteen years the German youth is no longer under the control of the compulsory school law, the value of the system of continuation schools is realized. Of necessity the great mass of boys are at this age, forced to enter some gainful pursuit. It was clearly evident to the German people that boys should not be cut off from school education at this early age. Dr. James H. Russell in his German Higher Schools says:

“The elementary and secondary schools are quite independent of each other—not one boy in ten thousand finds his way from the highest class of the elementary school into the Gymnasium.”

It is evident that year by year an increasingly large number of boys discontinue their education at the close of the elementary school, for a statement made by Mr. Michael N. Sadler, (Vol. III of Special Reports on Educational Subjects, London), some years prior to the above writing, would seem to indicate a lesser percentage of dropping out than that proposed by Dr. Russell.

The desire then for more extended educational advantages must have been early felt, and there sprang into existence what has since developed into one of the most significant features and far-reaching factors in the German scheme,—the continuation school. I quote from Mr. H. Bertram who writes of the continuation schools in Berlin, December, 1899:

“Amid the development of civilization among the nations the idea of the continuation school is making its way with increasing strength. Urgently required by the conditions of social organization, and in its turn acting on them, the new institution appears in many forms. It claims its place side by side with the Church and the School.

“Among the great number of those who enter early upon the practical business of life, to whom the primary school has offered a start there