the field, but were unable to carry away the heavy artillery which they had captured

At that time the United States found it hard to provide a remedy. The most obvious method was to refuse to trade with either of the nations. Accordingly an Embargo was laid by Congress in 1807, by which no cargoes of any kind were allowed to leave American ports, bound to a foreign destination. The embargo very nearly brought England to terms; but the United States had not patience to wait for its results. The shipping trade was paralyzed, and the farmers and planters could not export their surplus. In view of these losses, Congress after fourteen months' experience repealed the embargo.

CAUSES OF THE WAR

Since neither France nor Great Britain would accept the opportunity to make a friend of the United States, the captures went on; and England added the impressment of American seamen from American merchant vessels. The idea that a subject of the British Empire could change his allegiance and become the citizen of another nation seemed to England a dangerous novelty. Still, if the great sea-power had been willing to pay a little more wages to her men-of-warsmen, she could have filled her ships by enlistment. If she had been content to "press" men from her own merchant ships, she would not have aroused the antipathy of the Americans. To save a few hundred thousand pounds and to assert a right to claim Englishmen who had become American citizens, Great Britain gave unpardonable offense to the little United States.

When the war broke out, more than 5,000 Americans had been at one time or another impressed; and 2,000 or 3,000 were actually serving on board British men-of-war till the hostilities began. Then, having been originally seized without reason, they were made prisoners of war.

COLONEL MILLER AT THE BATTLE OF CHIPPEWA
At the Battle of Chippewa on July 5, 1814. Colonel Miller with three hundred men captured a height, the key to the British position. It was a desperate and courageous exploit

Considering the eventual result of the war, it is striking that the United States government placed little dependence on its navy, but expected to carry on a brilliant land campaign. Canada was to be conquered, and then, as Henry Clay put it, they could "negotiate a peace at Quebec or Halifax."

This was not a new thought. In the Revolutionary War Canada was invaded by Montgomery and Arnold and all but annexed to the new United States. How could Canada resist? Its population in 1812 was about 50,000; that of the United States was nearly 8,000,000. During the nine years from 1803 to 1812 the United States had tried every means short of war; and the vigorous young "war hawks," headed by Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, were tired of accepting what they felt to be a standing offence to their nation.

JAMES MADISON
President of the United States, 1809–1817
From the portrait by Gilbert Stuart

THE LAND WAR

In accordance with the plan of invasion, several "armies" of 2,000 or 3,000 men were pushed to the Canadian frontier; but in the very first fight the tables were turned, and Detroit was captured by the British. It took more than a year and 20,000 men to push back the British into Canada. Five different American commanders were ignominiously headed or defeated in attempting to invade Canada across the Niagara River or the St. Lawrence River. Except for Harrison's little victory at the Battle of the Thames, and for the drawn Battle of Lundy's Lane, the Canadian campaigns were all humiliating defeats.

THE DEATH OF GENERAL ROSS AT BALTIMORE
On September 12, 1814, General Ross in command of the British force advancing on Baltimore, was shot as he rode at the head of his troops by two American troopers concealed in a hollow. Baltimore was defended bravely, and the British were repulsed

This disagreeable chapter in our military history was due to the fact that the government had made no sufficient preparation of men or materials, and was obliged to rely upon untrained volunteer militia. These were men of personal courage and intelligence; and under such commanders as Jacob Brown and Andrew Jackson they showed that they had the instincts of soldiers. Nevertheless they were poorly drilled and equipped. In one campaign they stopped short when they reached the Canadian line, because they said they were not constitutionally bound to fight, except for the defense of their own country.

JAMES MONROE
Secretary of State, 1811–1817. He also acted as Secretary of War in 1814–1815. President, 1817–1825. From the portrait by John Vanderlyn

The result was that, starting with a regular army of only 7,000, which finally included about 50,000 men, 400,000 additional recruits were raised during the war. The total number of Canadians and British troops engaged in the war was not over 20,000. The Americans lost 30,000 men; and when the war was over the United States was not in possession of one foot of Canadian territory, while the British were occupying about half of the present state of Maine.

This heartbreaking result ought not to be charged to the soldiers so much as to the administration. John Armstrong, Secretary of War, allowed the British to land 5,000 men on the Chesapeake and to march fifty miles overland to Washington. Within a distance of two days' land travel from that city lived nearly 100,000 able-bodied men, most of them accustomed to handle a gun. Yet the British force was allowed to capture Washington, to burn the public buildings, and to retire to its fleet almost without losing a man. Till James Monroe became Secretary of War the whole administration was slack and incompetent.

ANDREW JACKSON
Victorious leader at the Battle of New Orleans. President, 1829–1837. From a drawing from life by J.B. Longacre

WAR AT SEA

A proof that the defeats of the War of 1812 were not due to lack of fiber among the American people as a whole, was the brilliant success of the operations on the high seas. Jefferson and Madison both thought the navy would do more harm than good. The British had twice seized the little navy of the Danes, and it seemed as though our ships would only be a whet to the appetite of the British naval giant. Against our 18 ships of war, of which only six were sizable frigates, the British could oppose 170 large ships and 700 others. They had the prestige of a hundred years of naval supremacy; they had driven the French and Spanish ships of war from the sea.

Therefore it was a joy to the nation when, seven weeks after the outbreak of the war, the frigate Constitution captured the Guerriere and