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NW. by W. gent breeze -4.4 29.35 clouded over, snow. Feb. 1 W. light breeze -11.7 29.27 cloudy, blue sky, m. "2 W. light air -25.1 29.62 blue sky, detached clouds, m.

These extracts are instructive. It will be seen that on the 3d of January, when the sun had been absent some weeks, it was calm, the thermometer stood at 26° below zero (the - or minus mark before the figures indicates that), and the barometer at 29.62, with blue sky, somewhat misty or hazy—(the letter “m.” standing for misty or hazy)—a state of the air which existed most of the time when it did not snow or rain, and therefore is of no importance in this connection. The next day the thermometer began to rise, and the barometer to fall. On the 5th it clouded over, and the thermometer rose rapidly, and on the 6th it had risen more than 25°, and snow fell. On the 7th it cleared off, the thermometer fell rapidly, and the barometer rose. On the 8th the thermometer had fallen to 21° below zero, and the barometer had risen to 30.14. Another instance, in all respects similar, occurred the latter part of the month. We shall see hereafter that these changes are precisely like those which occur with us, and every where. That, as in the polar regions, and whether the sun be present or absent, or obscured by clouds, and by night as well as by day, the changes from warm to cold and from cold to warm are sudden and great, and that the latter are connected with the fall of rain and snow—that every where in winter it moderates to storm.

Many other instructive instances, especially in relation to the great difference in the seasons in our own country, and upon the same parallels elsewhere, might be cited if it were necessary. But they will more appropriately appear in the sequel.

 

Fig. 1.

In the above cut the isothermal lines are Centigrade. The zero of the Centigrade thermometer is the freezing point of water, or 32° of Fahrenheit. The boiling point of water is 100° Centigrade, or 212° Fahrenheit. A degree of Centigrade is equal to one degree and four-fifths, Fahrenheit. The 0° line of the cut, therefore, is 32° of Fahrenheit—the line of 5° above is 41° Fahrenheit—the line of 5° below is 23° Fahrenheit, and so on. The reader, who is not familiar with the difference in the scale of the thermometer, is desired to remember this; for we shall make occasional extracts in which the temperature is given in the Centigrade scale.

 

The cause of those irregularities, especially in the same seasons of different years, and when very great, is often sought and supposed to be found in the presence or absence of spots on the sun, ice floes and bergs in the Atlantic, etc., etc. But neither the spots, nor ice, nor other local causes produce them. The cause will be found in the character of the arrangements we are considering, and the irregular action of the power which controls them.

Nor is the temperature of the northern hemisphere, north of the tropics, equal in the same latitudes. Very great diversities exist in the “annual mean” as well as the “mean” of the different seasons. Accurate observations at many points have enabled men of science to demonstrate this by drawing isothermal lines (i. e., lines of equal average annual heat) from point to point around the earth, which show at a glance these differences. The annexed cut is a polar projection of the isothermal lines of the northern hemisphere, as far down as the tropic, copied from Kaemtz’s Meteorology. The dotted lines show the parallels of latitude, the dark lines the isothermal lines, or lines of equal annual average temperature. The reader is desired to observe how rarely they correspond with the parallels of latitude, and how they fall below in a few instances, and in others with great uniformity rise almost to the pole.

Take, for example, the isothermal line of 0 or zero—that is, the line where the mean or average height of the thermometer for the year is at zero. At Behring’s Straits this line is a little below the Arctic circle, or the parallel of 66.30 north latitude. Passing east over North America, it descends into Canada, almost to Lake Superior, and to about the 50th parallel: that is to say, it is on an average during the year as cold on our continent at the 50th parallel as it is near Behring’s Straits at the 65th parallel. Passing east, the line of zero rises again over the Atlantic Ocean until, in the meridian of Spitzbergen, it reaches, within the Arctic circle, up almost to the 75th parallel. So, too, the isothermal of 5° below zero, which is below the 60th parallel in Siberia, rises in the North Sea, above Behring’s Straits, to the parallel of 75°, descending on the continent in North America to the 55th parallel, and rising again almost to the pole at Spitzbergen, to descend again in Siberia, while the isothermals of 10° and 15° below zero, which in North America are but just above the latitude of 60° and 75° respectively, ascend abruptly surrounding the magnetic pole, and falling short of the geographical one. Let this projection of the lines of equal temperature, and particularly the situation of the magnetic poles, be studied well, for we shall recur to it hereafter in illustration of many important portions of our subject.

It is apparent from these facts, and were it necessary might be rendered still more so by referring to others, that other causes operate in the distribution of heat over the earth besides the direct action of the sun’s rays upon it. Doubtless very considerable allowance is to be made for the difference of seasons, and difference during the same season upon the land and upon the ocean; in mountainous countries and level ones. But making every allowance for them, the fact that other causes have a controlling influence in producing the deviations still remains most obvious. Neither the difference of temperature between the land and the ocean, or land surfaces of unequal elevations, will account for the elevation of the isothermal lines on different portions of the ocean, or their extension around the magnetic poles.

Returning to a consideration of the arrangements for the diffusion of heat, we observe: First, that the earth itself is intensely heated in its interior. This is inferred, and justly, from the fact that the thermometer is found to rise about one degree for every fifty-five feet of descent—whether in boring artesian wells, exploring caves, or sinking shafts in mines. It is demonstrated, also, by the existence of hot springs and the action of volcanoes. Heat is supposed to be conducted from the center toward the surface every where, but with difficulty and slowly. It is also supposed to be conducted from the tropical regions toward the poles. Such is the opinion of Humboldt. (Cosmos, vol. i. p. 167.)

Probably it reaches the surface and exerts an influence, also, upon the weather through the ocean, and by heating it in its greatest depths. Little attention has been paid, so