applied with sublime success to the solution of the equations of heat conduction, an analysis which has since been transferred to other branches of physical mathematics, and has illuminated them with just those rays which could reveal the texture and structure of the physical phenomena. That method and its applications came from Fourier's mind in full development; he trod unerringly in its use along an almost unknown path, with pitfalls on every side; and he reached results which have since been verified by a criticism searching and keen, and lasting from Fourier's day to ours. The criticism has been minute and logical: it has not, it is needless to say, been poetical.

Two other great works of his father's collection of mathematical books, Laplace's Mécanique Céleste and Lagrange's Mécanique Analytique, seem also to have been read about this time, and to have made a deep impression on the mind of the youthful philosopher. The effect of these books can be easily traced in Thomson and Tail's Natural Philosophy.

The study of Fourier had a profound influence on Thomson's future work, an influence which has extended to his latest writings on the theory of certain kinds of waves. His treatment is founded on a strikingly original use of a peculiar form of solution (given by Fourier) of a certain fundamental differential equation in the theory of the flow of heat. It is probable that William Thomson's earliest predilections as regards study were in the direction of mathematics rather than of physics. But the studies of the young mathematician, for such in a very real and high sense he had become, were widened and deepened by the interest in physical things and their explanation aroused by the lectures of Meikleham, then Professor of Natural Philosophy, and especially (as Lord Kelvin testified in his inaugural address as Chancellor) by the teaching of J. P. Nichol, the Professor of Astronomy, a man of poetical imagination and of great gifts of vivid and clear exposition.

The Cyclopædia of Physical Science which Dr. Nichol published is little known now; but the first edition, published in 1857, to which Thomson contributed several articles, including a sketch of thermodynamics, contained much that was new and stimulating to the student of natural philosophy, and some idea of the accomplishments of its compiler and author can be gathered from its perusal. De Morgan's Differential and Integral Calculus was a favourite book in Thomson's student days, and later when he was at Cambridge, and he delighted to pore over its pages before the fire when the work of the day was over. Long after, he paid a grateful tribute to De Morgan and his great work, in the Presidential Address to the British Association at its Edinburgh Meeting in 1870.

The next paper which Thomson published, after the two of which a sketch has been given above, was entitled "The Uniform Motion of Heat in Homogeneous Solid Bodies, and its Connection with the Mathematical Theory of Electricity." It is dated "Lamlash, August 1841," so that it followed the first two at an interval of only four months. It appeared in the Cambridge Mathematical Journal in February 1842, and is republished in the "Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism." It will always be a noteworthy paper in the history of physical mathematics. For although, for the most part, only known theorems regarding the conduction of heat were discussed, an analogy was pointed out between the distribution of lines of flow and surfaces of equal temperature in a solid and unequally heated body, with sources of heat in its interior, and the arrangement of lines of forces and equipotential surfaces in an insulating medium surrounding electrified bodies, which correspond to the sources of heat in the thermal case. The distribution of lines of force in a space filled with insulating media of different inductive qualities was shown to be precisely analogous to that of lines of flow of heat in a corresponding arrangement of media of different heat-conducting powers. So the whole analysis and system of solutions in the thermal case could be at once transferred to the electrical one. The idea of the "conduction of lines of force," as Faraday first and Thomson afterwards called it, was further developed in subsequent papers, and threw light on the whole subject of electrostatic force in the "field" surrounding an electric distribution. Moreover, it made the subject definite and quantitative, and not only gave a guide to the interpretation of unexplained facts, but opened a way to new theorems and to further investigation.

This paper contains the extremely important theorem of the equivalence, so far as external field is concerned, of any distribution of electricity and a certain definite distribution, over any equipotential surface, of a quantity equal to that contained within the surface. But this general theorem and others contained in the paper had been anticipated in Green's "Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism," in memoirs by Chasles in Liouville's Journal (vols. iii and v), and in the celebrated memoir by Gauss "On General Theorems relating to Attractive and Repulsive Forces varying inversely as the Square of the Distance," published in German in Leipzig in 1840, and in English in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs in 1842. These anticipations are again referred to below.

CHAPTER III

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. SCIENTIFIC WORK AS UNDERGRADUATE

Thomson entered at St. Peter's College, Cambridge, in October 1841, and began the course of study then in vogue for mathematical honours. At that time, as always down almost to the present day, everything depended on the choice of a private tutor or "coach," and the devotion of the pupil to his directions, and on adherence to the subjects of the programme. His private tutor was William Hopkins, "best of all private tutors," one of the most eminent of his pupils called him, a man of great attainment and of distinction as an original investigator in a subject which had always deeply interested Thomson—the internal rigidity of the earth. But the curriculum for the tripos did not exhaust Thomson's energy, nor was it possible to keep him entirely to the groove of mastering and writing out book-work, and to the solution of problems of the kind dear to the heart of the mathematical examiner. He wrote original articles for the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, on points in pure and in applied mathematics, and read mathematical books altogether outside the scope of the tripos. Nor did he neglect athletic exercises and amusements; he won the Colquhoun Sculls as an oarsman, and was an active member, and later, during his residence at Cambridge, president of the C.U.M.S., the Cambridge University Musical Society.6 The musical instruments he favoured were the cornet and especially the French horn—he was second horn in the original Peterhouse band—but nothing seems to be on record as to the difficulties or incidents of his practice! Long afterwards, in a few extremely interesting lectures which he gave annually on sound, he discoursed on the vibrations of columns of air in wind instruments, and sometimes illustrated his remarks by showing how notes were varied in pitch on the old-fashioned French horn, played with the hand in the bell, a performance which always intensely delighted the Natural Philosophy Class.

At the Jubilee