mid-18th century and for which Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach wrote many solo keyboard compositions.

32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting. Photo: Robert Lautman.

33. Fretted clavichord: Full view.

34. Fretted clavichord: Plan view.

35. Unfretted clavichord: Full view.

36. Unfretted clavichord: Plan view.

By the beginning of the 18th century the desire was strong for a more expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles. Harpsichord builders added new stops, devised special leather plectra, and added Venetian swell effects and other innovations to alter the sound of the harpsichord. But no matter what they did, they could not produce enough dynamic gradation to satisfy musical taste. The clavichord was capable of dynamic nuance, but it lacked carrying power.

Instrument builders, seeking to satisfy the demands created by the change in sensibility and musical taste, turned naturally to the domestic instruments they knew best—the harpsichord and clavichord—as the process of adaptation began. For this reason, as the pianoforte was developed and perfected, the general proportions and arrangement of the grand piano resembled those of the harpsichord. Similarly, the relation between the keyboard and strings, the scaling, and other features of the square piano resembled those of the clavichord.

By the beginning of the 19th century the pianoforte, an instrument capable of subtle changes between soft and loud, had become the most important domestic and concert keyboard instrument. After 1800 few clavichords or harpsichords were built or used until they were revived by early music enthusiasts at the end of the 19th century.

Selected Bibliography

Boalch, Donald. Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord. London: George Ronald, 1955.

Hirt, Franz Josef. Meisterwerke des Klavierbaus. Olten, Switzerland: Urs Graf-Verlag, 1955.

Hubbard, Frank. Harpsichord Regulating and Repairing. Boston: Tuner’s Supply, Inc., 1963.

Hubbard, Frank. Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.

James, Philip. Early Keyboard Instruments. London: Peter Davies, 1930.

Ripin, Edwin M. “The Early Clavichord,” Musical Quarterly, 53(4) (October 1967): 518-538.

Russell, Raymond. The Harpsichord and the