reef-points, are placed little iron rings, or cringles, as they are called, which are used to pass a rope through, called a reef-pennant, to haul the sail well out on to the boom when being reefed. The rope (a a) represents what is called the topping-lift, and is used to lower or hoist the main-boom, so as to make the sail set well in certain circumstances; or when the main-boom is out over the water on one side of the boat, when running before the wind, to "top it up" so as to keep it out of the water when the boat rolls. It is set up by means of a small pulley, the end of the rope coming inboard through a sheave in the boom, or one fastened to its side.

The jib has its luff, head, foot, and after-leach, the same as the mainsail, but, of course, has only three clews, being a triangular sail.

And what is defined about these sails will apply to all fore-and-aft sails.

The most important ropes, to which the attention of the reader is called, are the following:—

The main-sheet (l) is a long rope fastened to the main-boom, and controlling the action of the mainsail. According to the size of the boat, this sheet will be single, or rove through a series of blocks, to enable the helmsman to handle the sail. Upon the management of this sheet depends, in a great measure, the safety of all boat-sailing. Its perfect handling and adjustment call for the nicest skill; for its slightest movement changes the whole face of the canvas spread in the mainsail.

The jib-sheets (m) are fastened to the after-clew of the jib at the foot of the sail, and are led aft on both sides of the deck, so as to be within reach of the helmsman, or those sitting in the after-part of the boat. Like the main-sheet, they are used to confine and trim down the jib, each being used on the side on which it is desired to trim down the sail.

The outer-jib is controlled in the same manner, by two sheets, one being led aft on either side of the deck.

The mainsail is hoisted by means of two sets of ropes, called throat and peak-halliards (n).

These are fastened at the foot of the mast to cleats when the sail is hoisted; the throat-halliards, usually on the port side of the mast, and the peak-halliards, on the starboard side of the mast.

N.B.—The term starboard is applied to any thing appertaining to the right-hand side of a boat, with the observer looking towards the bow. The term port (formerly, and sometimes now, called larboard) is applied to any thing appertaining to the left-hand side, and, thus once defined, never changes.

Although the observer may go forward and look aft, the starboard side is still the starboard side, although now on his left hand. Hence sailors talk of the starboard anchor, the port shrouds; "Ease off the port jib-sheet!" "Let go the starboard flying-jib-sheet!" "Put your helm over to port!" "Hoist those colors from the starboard side!" "Let the boom go over to port!" "Get up that anchor which you will find below in the forecastle, on the starboard side!" "Go about on the port tack!" &c.

The jib (2) is hoisted by means of a rope, which is called the jib-halliards, which is made fast to the upper clew of the sail, and led through a block at the mainmast head, and thence to the deck, being "belayed" (i.e., made fast) to the mainmast near the deck. This sail also has a small but useful rope attached to it, called the down-haul, which is fastened to the upper clew, and led down to a small block at the bowsprit end, and thence in on deck; and serves to haul the sail down after the halliards have been cast off. The flying-jib (4) is fitted with halliards and down-haul in the same manner.

The gaff-topsail (3) is set by hauling out the after-leach and foot to the end of the main-gaff, which part of the gaff is called the peak, by means of a rope, which is named the gaff topsail-sheet, which reefs through a sheave in the gaff end, and hence under the gaff to the throat, and thence through a block to the deck. The other clew, formed by the luff and foot, is stretched by means of a rope leading to the deck, called the tack; and the sail is hoisted by means of halliards, that reeve through a block fastened at the topmast head, and thence leading to the deck.

When the boat is under way, and pressed over by the wind, the terms "starboard" and "port" are often exchanged for "leeward" and "windward," and, in fact, are the more commonly used in many instances; although an old sailor would apply the word "starboard" to certain things that he would not apply the word "leeward" or "windward" to: but these exceptions it would be hard to point out, and they would be of little material use. Let it suffice to say, that as a rule, when a boat is at anchor or upright, the terms "starboard" and "port" are used; whilst, when under way, the terms "lee" or "leeward," "weather" or "windward," are more commonly used; for instance, "Let go the weather jib-sheet!" "Haul aft the lee flying jib-sheet!" "Haul that coil of rope over to the weather-side (or to windward)!" "Throw that hot water to leeward!" "Does she carry a weather-helm?" &c.

CHAPTER II.

Ballast.—Useful Knots.—To anchor in a Gale of Wind.—Getting the Anchor, and Casting.—Anchoring for Fishing.—Grounding and Floating.—Warping by Means of an Anchor.—To make a Running Moor.

Having learned the names of all the important spars, sails, and ropes, and their uses, it becomes necessary to study the other appurtenances of a boat to acquire a thorough knowledge of boat-sailing; and for that purpose we will pass briefly in review the following.

BALLAST.

Nearly all yachts are made of such a model as to need some heavy material placed within them to enable them to carry sail, and stand up against sudden squalls and flaws of wind. This material is called ballast, and, as a self-evident rule, yachts that are shallow, and of great breadth of beam, need less than those of a deep and narrow model.

Many articles may be used for ballast, and a yacht ballasted in many different ways; but the following-named are those that are most commonly used. Pig-iron, in pieces that can be handled, is a favorite kind of ballast: sometimes each piece is painted, so as to preserve it from rusting, and discoloring the inside of the boat. Iron in the form of fifty-six-pound weights is also used; whilst a cheaper and very common ballast is found in the small clean pebbles of the seashore. Water contained in movable tanks has been at times, with some, a well-praised ballast; and in yachts where it can be used, and that are fitted for it, it is of great practical value, as, like no other, it can be discharged and renewed by means of a pump, according to the will and weather.

The slag from smelted copper and iron is extensively used, as are also broken pieces of iron-casting. But perhaps the ballast as commonly in use as any other in medium-sized yachts and small boats, or, at least, a part of the ballast, consists of common sea-sand enclosed in canvas sacks of a not too unwieldy size, that are movable about the bottom of the boat by means of canvas handles, and can, in emergency, be dumped bodily over into the sea, thus relieving the yacht of so