it—Marshall supports it—Henry's bill for amalgamation of Indians and whites—Marshall regrets its defeat—Anti-National sentiment of the people—Steady change in Marshall's ideas—Mercantile and financial interests secure the Constitution—Shall Virginia call a Convention to ratify it?—Marshall harmonizes differences and Convention is called—He is in the first clash over Nationalism.

VII. LIFE OF THE PEOPLE: COMMUNITY ISOLATION 250      The state of the country—A résumé of conditions—Revolutionary leaders begin to doubt the people—Causes of this doubt—Isolation of communities—Highways and roads—Difficulty and danger of travel—The road from Philadelphia to Boston: between Boston and New York—Roads in interior of New England, New York, Philadelphia, and New Jersey—Jefferson's account of roads from Richmond to New York—Traveler lost in the "very thick woods" on way from Alexandria to Mount Vernon to visit Washington—Travel and transportation in Virginia—Ruinous effect on commerce—Chastellux lost on journey to Monticello to visit Jefferson—Talleyrand's description of country—Slowness of mails—Three weeks or a month and sometimes two months required between Virginia and New York—Mail several months in reaching interior towns—News that Massachusetts had ratified the Constitution eight days in reaching New York—Ocean mail service—letters opened by postmasters or carriers—Scarcity of newspapers—Their untrustworthiness—Their violent abuse of public men—Franklin's denunciation of the press: he advises "the liberty of the cudgel" to restrain "the liberty of the press"—Jefferson's disgust—The country newspaper: Freneau's "The Country Printer"—The scantiness of education—Teachers and schools—The backwoodsmen—The source of abnormal American individualism—The successive waves of settlers—Their ignorance, improvidence, and lack of social ideals—Habits and characteristics of Virginians—Jefferson's harsh description of them—Food of the people—Their houses—Continuous drinking of brandy, rum, and whiskey—This common to whole country—Lack of community consciousness—Abhorrence of any National Government. VIII. POPULAR ANTAGONISM TO GOVERNMENT 288      Thomas Paine's "Common Sense"—Its tremendous influence: "Government, even in its best state, is but a necessary evil"—Popular antagonism to the very idea of government—Impossibility of correcting falsehoods told to the people—Popular credulity—The local demagogue—North Carolina preacher's idea of the Constitution—Grotesque campaign story about Washington and Adams—Persistence of political canard against Levin Powell—Amazing statements about the Society of the Cincinnati: Ædanus Burke's pamphlet; Mirabeau's pamphlet; Jefferson's denunciation—Marshall and his father members of the Cincinnati—Effect upon him of the extravagant abuse of this patriotic order—Popular desire for general division of property and repudiation of debts—Madison's bitter comment—Jay on popular greed and "impatience of government"—Paper money—Popular idea of money—Shays's Rebellion—Marshall's analysis of its objects—Knox's report of it—Madison comes to the conclusion that "the bulk of mankind" are incapable of dealing with weighty subjects—Washington in despair—He declares mankind unfit for their own government—Marshall also fears that "man is incapable of governing himself"—Jefferson in Paris—Effect on his mind of conditions in France—His description of the French people—Jefferson applauds Shays's Rebellion: "The tree of liberty must be refreshed by the blood of patriots and tyrants"—Influence of French philosophy on Jefferson—The impotence of Congress under the Confederation—Dishonorable conduct of the States—Leading men ascribe evil conditions to the people themselves—Views of Washington, Jay, and Madison—State Sovereignty the shield of turmoil and baseness—Efforts of commercial and financial interests produce the Constitution—Madison wants a National Government with power of veto on all State laws "whatsoever"—Jefferson thinks the Articles of Confederation "a wonderfully perfect instrument"—He opposes a "strong government"—Is apprehensive of the Constitution—Thinks destruction of credit a good thing—Wishes America "to stand with respect to Europe precisely on the footing of China"—The line of cleavage regarding the Constitution—Marshall for the Constitution. IX. THE STRUGGLE FOR RATIFICATION 319      The historic Convention of 1788 assembles—Richmond at that time—General ignorance of the Constitution—Even most members of the Convention poorly informed—Vague popular idea of Constitution as something foreign, powerful, and forbidding—People in Virginia strongly opposed to it—The Virginia debate to be the greatest ever held over the Constitution—The revolutionary character of the Constitution: would not have been framed if the people had known of the purposes of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia: "A child of fortune"—Ratification hurried—Pennsylvania Convention: hastily called, physical violence, small number of people vote at election of members to Pennsylvania Convention—People's ignorance of the Constitution—Charges of the opposition—"The humble address of the low born"—Debate in Pennsylvania Convention—Able "Address of Minority"—Nationalism of the Constitution the principal objection—Letters of "Centinel": the Constitution "a spurious brat"—Attack on Robert Morris—Constitutionalist replies: "Sowers of sedition"—Madison alarmed—The struggle in Massachusetts—Conciliatory tactics of Constitutionalists—Upper classes for Constitution—Common people generally opposed—Many towns refuse to send delegates to the Convention—Contemporary descriptions of the elections—High ability and character of Constitutionalist members—Self-confessed ignorance and incapacity of opposition: Madison writes that there is "Scarcely a man of respectability among them"—Their pathetic fight against the Constitution—Examples of their arguments—The bargain with Hancock secures enough votes to ratify—The slender majority: one hundred and sixty-eight vote against ratification—Methods of Constitutionalists after ratification—Widgery's amusing account: hogsheads of rum—Gerry's lament—Bribery charged—New Hampshire almost rejects Constitution—Convention adjourned to prevent defeat—"Little information among the people," but most "men of property and abilities" for Constitution—Constitution receives no deliberate consideration until