succeeded Pythagoras, whose scientific attainments proved a blessing to the world, and whose names will go down to all succeeding generations, as the learned, the good, and the great of their time; yet prejudice and superstition again prevailed, and the true lights of this science were lost sight of, and, for near two thousand years, ages of darkness prevailed, until Copernicus appeared about the fifteenth century of the Christian era. He again revived the idea advanced by Pythagoras, that the earth and planets moved regularly in their orbits, and that the sun was the centre of the solar system. Yet with him, as with the former, it was little more than mere conjecture.

We quote again Prof. Olmsted, in regard to these earlier astronomers, who were struggling after light, and truth, in this grandest of sciences: "Although, therefore, Pythagoras fathomed the profound doctrine, that the Sun is the centre around which the earth and all the planets revolve; yet we have no evidence that he ever solved the irregular motions of the planets, in conformity with his hypothesis, although the explanation of the diurnal revolution of the heavens, by that hypothesis, involved no difficulty."

Again he says, "Ignorant as Copernicus was of the principle of gravitation, and of most of the laws of motion, he could go but little way in following out the consequences of his own hypothesis; and all that can be claimed for him is, that he solved, by means of it, most of the common phenomena of the celestial motions. He was indeed upon the road to truth, and advanced some way in its sure path; but he was able to adduce but few independent proofs, to show that it was truth. It was only near the close of his life that he published his system to the world, and that only at the urgent request of friends; anticipating, perhaps, the opposition of a bigoted priesthood, whose fury was afterwards poured upon the head of Galileo, for maintaining the same doctrines."

The bigotry and superstition of the priesthood of the Church of Rome again crushed out the lights of this science, and forbade further investigations, and all was resolved back again into the doctrine first taught by Eudoxus, who lived more than three hundred years before Christ. This doctrine was the system of crystalline spheres; "the earth the centre of the world, and all heavenly bodies set like gems in hollow, solid orbs, composed of crystal so transparent, that no anterior orb could obstruct in the least, the view of any of the orbs lying behind it," that the heavens revolved or rolled round from East to West, performing the circuit every twenty-four hours, carrying along the sun, planets, orbs, &c., and that "above the whole were spread the grand empyrean, or 'third heavens,' the abode of perpetual serenity."

"To account for the planetary motions, it was supposed that the planetary bodies, as also the stars, and sun, each had a motion of its own from East to West, while all partook of the common diurnal motion of the starry sphere."

"Aristotle taught that these motions were effected by a tutelary genius of each planet, residing in it, and directing its motions, even as the mind of man directs his own movements."

Thus, from the time of Copernicus, until Galileo appeared in the sixteenth century, the lights of this science were again extinguished by the superstition, bigotry, and intolerance of the priesthood, who would make no proper advance with intellect beyond the established dogmas of the church; even to ascertain truths which God himself had made plainly perceptible in His wondrous works.

Galileo, born in Pisa, Italy, in the year 1564, evinced in early life, a fondness for the study of philosophy, and the higher order of sciences, and proved himself also a genius in mechanical inventions. Fortune favored him in his day, and, enjoying all the greater advantages of the best schools of his time, he studied well all the old masters, who had preceded him, and became perfectly familiar with every theory of philosophy and astronomy then known, and prepared himself for an advance in the sciences. He invented the first telescope, with which to survey the heavenly bodies, and the result of his experiments proved conclusively the correctness of the theory advanced by the conjectures of Copernicus.

He pursued his investigations for years, and established the truth, in his own mind, of the constant movements of the earth and planets, each revolving in its own orbit, with the Sun as the common centre of all; of the truth of which he could never more entertain a single doubt. But the laws which governed and controlled their movements—the power and force of attraction and gravitation—he could not yet fully comprehend. This great work of discovery was left for Sir Isaac Newton. Knowing the bigotry and intolerance of the ruling powers of Rome, he, Galileo, resorted to subterfuge in order to obtain permission to publish his opinions to the world. Yet, when published, these drew down upon his head the stern persecution of the Pope and Cardinals, and also opposition and accusations from all other philosophers and astronomers of his time. At length, hearing the distant muttering "thunders of the Vatican," he resorted to Rome, to reason with the powers that then held universal sway. But, like all other lights of reason—from time immemorial to the present hour—the fiat of the Romish Church would ever obscure, or crush out light, chain down the intellect, become the arbiter of the consciences of men, and permit no advance, save as she might lead; and even then binding all to her dogmas, and decrees, by the power of force, and threatenings of her Inquisitions. She has ever stood ready, where she had the power, to crush with her iron heel every one who dared to oppose, or sought to lead the mind of man to light and liberty. And it has been the force of circumstances alone, that has, in part, broken this chain of bondage, emancipated the mind, given freedom to thought, and permitted the advance of human intellect.

Galileo seemed, indeed, as Nature's philosopher of his time. "He interrogated the laws of nature by experiments and observations, and we have to ascribe to him the first true investigation of the laws of terrestrial gravity." Had he stood firm and maintained the truths which God had permitted him to comprehend, the lights of a true science would then have shone forth, and it is possible that our knowledge to-day would be far in advance of what it is. We judge thus, because of the rapid advance made during the last century, especially since Dr. William Herschel first pointed his telescope toward the heavens.

But on Galileo's arrival at Rome, neither his venerable age, his enlightened mind, his acknowledged comprehensive and brilliant intellect, nor even his honorable and eloquent appeals for a full and scientific investigation as to the correctness of his theory, could gain a generous response. The powers that ruled had not made the advance, and it was dangerous to them to permit any one outside to do so. Hence, all new doctrines were held as heretical, and must be crushed at once. He was placed in confinement, charged with treason and conspiracy against the Church; his views heretical, such as demanded the most rigorous punishment;—even after he should renounce them before the cardinals sitting as Inquisitors in his case. The charges against him were those of his published views, which he freely acknowledged, and, while he knew them to be truths, yet so controlling was the influence of his belief in the dogmas of that church—even as it is with all its adherents—that he bowed to its fiat, and, on bended knees laid his hand upon the Holy Gospels, and swore by them and the Roman Catholic Church, before God, and the Inquisition