volcanic exposures occur in the Marshall Islands.

There is a total land surface of approximately 846 square miles in the islands of Micronesia. The Palaus and Carolines have 525 square miles, the Marianas 247 square miles, and the Marshalls 74 square miles of land surface. Guam has the largest land surface of any of the islands of Micronesia with 225 square miles, Ponapé has 145 square miles, and Babelthuap has 143 square miles. Asuncion, in the northern Marianas, has the highest elevation, rising as an almost perfect cone to a height of 2,923 feet; Ponapé reaches a height of 2,579 feet above the sea level. The volcanic islands are known as "high" islands, and the coral atolls are known as "low" islands. The coral islands usually rise but a few feet above sea level.

Climate

In Micronesia there are two seasons: a wet summer and a dryer winter. Temperatures rarely go above 90° F. and rarely below 70° F. Rainfall in the Marianas averages approximately 85 inches per year, in the Palaus approximately 150 inches, in the Carolines it ranges from 129 to 185 inches, and in the Marshalls it goes up to 160 inches. The humidity is excessive, the average annual mean of relative humidity for selected islands in Micronesia being between 82 and 86 percent. The relative humidity is lower in the western Carolines and the Palaus, than in other parts of Micronesia.

The Mariana Islands lie between the area of the Asiatic monsoon and the belt of the northeast trade winds. At Saipan from November until March or April, winds usually are easterly or northeasterly and are strong and steady since the northeast trades and the winter monsoon reinforce each other. In April and May the directions of the winds shift toward the southeast, and they become weaker and more variable. In this period there may be some easterly winds in addition to the predominating southeasterly winds. Detailed information is not available on the winds which occur in the Marianas north of Saipan, but at Pagan easterly winds probably prevail from May to July and westerly winds prevail in the remainder of the year. The Carolines lie in the belt of alternating northeast trade winds and southwest monsoons. The northeast trades begin in October and prevail until May or June. The southwest monsoon occurs from May to October and may be felt as far east as Truk. To the eastward, the winds of the summer are usually light and variable. In the Marshall Islands, the northeast trade winds predominate from about December to April, especially in the northern part of the Marshalls. In summer, winds are variable and weak; periods of calm may occur. Typhoons and squalls occur most frequently in the spring and summer in Micronesia. Some of the severe typhoons are known to engulf entire islands, as did the one at Woleai in 1907.

Soils

The soils of the islands of Micronesia have been derived from volcanic materials or from depositions of coralline limestone. Volcanic soils occur on the "high" islands of Micronesia. In many places, especially on the islands of the northern Marianas there is little soil; there are large areas of bare igneous rock, because the islands are geologically of relatively recent origin and little erosion has occurred. On islands where volcanic rocks have decomposed, the resulting soil may have a top layer of humus. The richest soils of the islands are along drainage areas and in alluvial deposits.

Coralline soils result from the decomposition of limestone, coral fragments, shells, and sand, and are overlain by some humus. Where the layer of humus is deep, the fertility is greatest. Coralline-volcanic soils occur on some "high" islands where coral rock and volcanic rock have become mixed in the decomposition process which forms soil. In parts of the Marianas and elsewhere, unwise practices of burning and overgrazing have allowed extensive erosion to occur, resulting in reduced fertility of the soil. On the island of Yap certain sedimentary rocks are exposed which are thought to have been elevated from the ocean bottom. Soils at Yap which have developed from this rock are considered more fertile than soils of coralline origin, although the fertility there also is dependent on the depth of the layer of humus.

Surface Water

There is little fresh water on the coral atolls, but brackish marshes are present on some islands, and many of these marshes are used for the cultivation of taro by the natives. Some volcanic islands, on the other hand, possess small streams and fresh water lakes, producing suitable habitat for certain rails, gallinules and ducks. On the "low" islands in the Marshalls, natural surface pools are rare.

Vegetation

The "high" islands of Micronesia support a heavy cover of vegetation. Typically the lowlands and stream courses are covered with dense jungle vegetation, and the slopes and higher hills are covered with grasses and brush. The vegetation of the "low" coral atolls and islands is, by comparison, much less dense. Many shorelines are covered with scant grasses and shrubs and the interior in many places is dominated by coconut, betel palms, breadfruit, papaya, and pandanus. References to papers dealing with plants in the islands of the Pacific may be obtained in Merrill (1945), who (1945:207) writes, "Botanically, the low islands are very uninteresting and monotonous. The flora of one is usually quite the same as that of another, although these islands and islets may be separated by many hundred and in some cases several thousand miles. The native vegetation may be scanty or reasonably well developed, depending on the size of the island, the quality of its soil, and whether or not it is permanently inhabitated." Of the vegetation on the "high" islands of the Pacific area, Merrill (1945:209) comments that the vegetation "is well developed, particularly within the forested areas, but for these high islands within the Pacific basin as a whole, the number of endemic genera is relatively small and most of them have definite relationships with those of Malaysia." Concerning the "high" islands of Micronesia, Merrill (1945:210) remarks that these islands are smaller and more isolated than some of the others in Oceania and have fewer individual species "as compared with what one finds on islands of a similar size located within limits of the Malay Archipelago. Thus with all of the islands under Japanese mandate, and including a number of high, but at the same time relatively small islands, less than 1,300 different species are known, of which 230 manifestly represent purposely or accidentally introduced ones. This relatively small flora includes representatives of approximately 620 genera in 192 families.... Specific endemism is relatively high, for approximately 460 species are confined to the islands within the area under consideration. The generic endemism is very low; about seven endemic genera only are involved for the whole group." The figures for endemism of plants are comparable to those for birds. Of endemic birds there are 5 genera, 35 species, and 73 subspecies. The total number of species of birds known from Micronesia is only 206 as compared with 1,300 plants. Yamada (1926:966) writes that the number of species of plants that Micronesia has in common with Japan may be due to the influence of the "Japan Stream."

Many land birds in Micronesia depend directly on the plant life for food. Possibly the soil (including its mineral content), upon which the plants themselves depend for development of fruits and other edible parts, may offer a limiting factor to the distribution of birds in Micronesia. Possibly the fruits and other edible parts of plants do not provide the necessary amounts of proteins,