bureau of weights and measures, the location of which should be Paris, to be conducted by a general conference for weights and measures, to be composed of the delegates of all the contracting governments."

This bureau is empowered to construct and preserve the international standards, to distribute copies of the same to the several countries, and also to discuss and initiate measures necessary for the determination of the metric system. The commission adopted a form for the standard as shown in Fig. 1. The lines representing the length of the meter are drawn on the plane A, which is the neutral plane, and will not change in length should the bar deflect. The bar is made of 90 per cent platinum and 10 per cent iridium, about 250 kilograms having been melted when preparations were made for the first standard, so that all of the copies made from this cast represent the same coefficient of expansion and are subject to the same changes as the original. The French government presented to the bureau the pavilion Breteuil, opposite the Park of St. Cloud, which was accepted and put into order and is now the repository of the originals of the meter and the kilogram. The expense attending the first establishment of the bureau was about $10,000 to the United States, and since then its share of the annual expense has been about $900. The standards in the possession of the United States were received through the international bureau.

The Commercial Value of a Standard

Having at the disposal of the nation a standard of length, the question arises, "What can be made of it commercially, and how do we know when we have a copy of the standard?"

Fig. 1. Form of Bar Adopted for International Standards of Length

In 1893, the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co. decided to make a new standard to replace the one they had at that date. Mr. O. J. Beale was detailed to do this work. He prepared steel bars about 40 inches long by 1¼ inch square, and after planing them, they were allowed to rest for several months. At the ends of these bars he inserted two gold plugs, the centers of which were about 36 inches apart, and a little beyond these two others about one meter apart. A bar was placed in position upon a heavy bed. This was so arranged that a tool carrier could be passed over the bar. The tool carrier consisted of a light framework, holding the marking tool. One feature of the marking was that the point of the marking tool was curved and had an angle, so that if dropped it made an impression in the form of an ellipse. In graduations, ordinarily, the line, when highly magnified, is apt to present at its ends an impression less definite than in the center, by reason of the form of the objective. The line made with the tool mentioned is short, and that portion of the line is read which passes, apparently, through the straight line in the eye-glass of the microscope. In order to make these lines as definite as possible, the point was lapped to a bright surface. After being placed in position, the microscope, which could be placed on the front of the tool carrier, was set to compare with the graduation on the standard bar from which the new bar was to be prepared. After such a setting the readings were made by three persons, and by turning the lever the marking tool was dropped, making a very fine line, so fine indeed, that when the authorities in Washington began the examination of the bar later on they declared that no line had been made upon these studs.

After making the first line, the carriage was moved along to compare with the other line on the standard, and after the correction had been made by the use of the micrometer in the microscope, the marking tool was again dropped, giving the second line, which was intended to mark the limit of one yard over-all. The same operation was repeated in the marking of the meter. The whole of this work was done, of course, with the greatest care, and, while the theoretical portion of it appears very simple in detail, it required a great deal of time and patience before the last line had been made. The bar thus marked was taken to Washington, and in Mr. Beale's presence was compared by the attendants with Bronze No. 11 and later with Low Moor bar, No. 57.

In comparing this standard, a method was employed very similar to that used in marking it. The bar, properly supported, was placed upon a box that rested upon rolls, and on this same box was placed the government standard with which the Brown & Sharpe standard was to be compared. The standard was placed in position under the microscope, and after being properly set to the standard, the bar to be measured was placed under the microscope, and by the micrometer screw of the microscope the variation was measured. Three comparisons were made by each of the attendants on each end before determining the reading of the microscope, and after such comparisons and many repetitions of it, the value of the standard No. 2 was found to be 36.00061 inches for the yard, and 1.0000147 meter for the meter.

After this work had been done, Mr. Beale prepared a second standard which he called No. 3, and after examining, as shown above, the error was found to be 0.00002 inch for the yard, and 0.000005 meter for the meter. Observing these variations as compared with the standards originally made, we find they are very close, and it is doubtful if many repeated trials would furnish more accurate work, when we remember that out of forty original standards made, but two are correct at 62 degrees Fahrenheit.

After establishing a yard, the problem of obtaining an inch comes next, and this was made by subdividing the yard into two equal parts, these into three, and the three further subdivided into six parts. It should be particularly noted that no mention has been made of a standard inch, as there is none, the standard yard only existing, the subdivision of which falls upon those undertaking standard work. There is a remarkable agreement between at least three leading gage makers of this country and abroad, and each came to the result by its own method of subdividing the standard yard.

Kinds of Measurements and Measuring Tools

The measurements in the shop may, in general, be divided into measurements of length and measurements of angles. The length measurements in turn may be divided into line measurements and end measurements, the former being made by placing a rule or similar instrument against the object being measured, and comparing its length with the graduations on the measuring instruments; the latter are made by comparing the object being measured with the measuring instrument, by bringing the object measured into actual contact with the measuring surfaces of the instrument. Examples of line measurements are the ordinary measurements made with the machinist's rule, and examples of end measurement are those made by the micrometer, measuring machines, and snap gages. Angular measurements can also be divided into two classes; those measured directly by graduations on the instrument, and those measured by comparison with a given angle of the instrument.

Measuring instruments may also be divided into two classes, according to whether they actually are used for measuring, or whether they are principally used for comparing objects with one another. According to this classification all kinds of rules and protractors belong to the first class, whereas all gages belong to the second class. The ordinary instruments for length measurements, the regular machinists' rule, the caliper square, and the ordinary micrometer caliper, are too well known to require any additional explanation. The same is true of the regular bevel protractor