COSMOGONIC AND THEOGONIC MYTHS—The gods as demoniacal beings—Their struggle with the demons of earliest times—Myths of creation—Sagas of flood and of universal conflagration—Myths of world-destruction.

14. THE BELIEF IN SOULS AND IN A WORLD BEYOND—Sequence of ideas of the beyond—The spirit-village—The islands of the blessed—Myths of the underworld—Distinction between dwelling-places of souls—Elysium—The underworld and the celestial regions—Purgatory—Cults of the beyond—The conception of salvation—Transmigration of souls.

15. THE ORIGIN OF DEITY CULTS—Relation of myth and cult—Religious significance of cult—Vegetation cults—Union of cult purposes—Mystery cults.

16. THE FORMS OF CULT PRACTICES—Prayer—Conjuration and the prayer of petition—Prayer of thanksgiving—Praise—The penitential psalm—Sacrifice—Purpose of sacrifice originally magical—Jewish peace-offering and sin-offering—Development of conception of gift—Connection between value and sacrifice—Votive and consecration gifts—Sacrifice of the first fruits—Sanctification ceremonies—Means of lustration as means of sanctification—Water and fire—Baptism and circumcision—Magical sanctification—Human sacrifice as a means of sanctification.

17. THE ART OF THE HEROIC AGE—Temple and palace—The human figure as the subject of formative art—Art as generic and as individualizing—The appreciation of the significant—Expression of subjective mood in landscape painting—The epic—Its influence upon the cult-song—The drama—Music as an accessory and as an independent art.

CHAPTER IV—THE DEVELOPMENT TO HUMANITY

1. THE CONCEPT 'HUMANITY'—Herder's idea of humanity as the goal of history—The concepts 'mankind' and 'human nature'—Humanity as a value-concept—The idea of a cultural community of mankind and its developmental forms.

2. WORLD EMPIRES—The empires of Egypt and of Western Asia—The monarch as ruler of the world—The ruler as deity—Apotheosis of deceased rulers—Underlying cause of formation of empires—Disappearance of world empires from history.

3. WORLD CULTURE—The world dominion of Alexander—Greek as the universal language—Writing and speech as factors of culture—Travel as symptoatic of culture—Hellenistic world culture and its results—The culture of the Renaissance—Cosmopolitanism and individualism.

4. WORLD RELIGIONS—Unity of the world of gods—Cult of Æsculapius and cults of the beyond—Their transition into redemption cults—Buddhism and Christianity—Development of the idea of a superpersonal deity—The incarnate god as the representative of this deity—Three aspects of the concept 'representative.'

5. WORLD HISTORY—Twofold significance of the concept 'history'—History as self-conscious experience—The rôle of will in history—Prehistoric and historic periods—Influence of world culture and world religions on the rise of the historical consciousness—The philosophy of history—Its relation to a psychological history of the development of mankind.

INDEX

ELEMENTS OF FOLK PSYCHOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

The word 'Völkerpsychologie'(folk psychology) is a new compound in our [the German] language. It dates back scarcely farther than to about the middle of the nineteenth century. In the literature of this period, however, it appeared with two essentially different meanings. On the one hand, the term 'folk psychology' was applied to investigations concerning the relations which the intellectual, moral, and other mental characteristics of peoples sustain to one another, as well as to studies concerning the influence of these characteristics upon the spirit of politics, art, and literature. The aim of this work was a characterization of peoples, and its greatest emphasis was placed on those cultural peoples whose civilization is of particular importance to us—the French, English, Germans, Americans, etc. These were the questions of folk psychology that claimed attention during that period, particularly, to which literary history has given the name "young Germany." The clever essays of Karl Hillebrand on Zeiten, Völker und Menschen (collected in eight volumes, 1885 ff.) are a good recent example of this sort of investigation. We may say at the outset that the present work follows a radically different direction from that pursued by these first studies in folk psychology.

Practically coincident with the appearance of these earliest studies, however, was a radically different use of the term 'folk psychology.' The mental sciences began to realize the need of a psychological basis; where a serviceable psychology did not exist, they felt it necessary to establish an independent psychological foundation for their work. It was particularly in connection with the problems of philology and mythology, and at about the middle of the century, that the idea gradually arose of combining into a unified whole the various results concerning the mental development of man as severally viewed by language, religion, and custom. A philosopher and a philologist, Lazarus and Steinthal, may claim credit for the service of having introduced the term 'folk psychology' to designate this new field of knowledge. All phenomena with which mental sciences deal are, indeed, creations of the social community. Language, for example, is not the accidental discovery of an individual; it is the product of peoples, and, generally speaking, there are as many different languages as there are originally distinct peoples. The same is true of the beginnings of