centre. Besides, though the term Danish is universally applied to these works, yet some of them are also undoubtedly Norwegian, particularly one near Fore in Westmeath, called the "Fort of Turgesius," positively described by Giraldus as the work of a Norwegian chieftain, and raised for a castle, using the word "Castella," and not Castrum.

Before quitting the subject of the Raths, it may be useful to notice Ledwich's observations on that subject. Quoting Giraldus, The Irish, says he, had no castles, their woods served them for camps, and their marshes for ditches. It was Turgesius and his Ostmen who formed that infinite number of earthen forts and castles made of lime and stone. It is then to those northern invaders that Giraldus ascribes the high round earthen forts with deep ditches and often triple entrenchments. This is certainly in opposition to Mr. Harris, who argues for their Celtic origin, reasoning principally on the name of rath being of Celtic derivation. It has also been supposed that they may have been introduced by the Belgic colonists, as the name has some appearance of Teutonic origin. These raths are generally upon elevated spots, and of various dimensions, from 10 or 15 yards diameter, to an extent of 18 or 20 acres. Some of them have subterraneous chambers, with sally-ports; some are round, others square; the former supposed by Spencer to be Danish, the latter Saxon. They are sometimes called Motes, a Gothic word signifying the place of meeting; and indeed it has been supposed that many of them were intended rather for civil legislation, or judicial purposes, than as works of military defence. These Raths, together with the Duns, or inclosures upon insulated rocks, and the Daingeans, or inclosures formed by deep ditches with ramparts and pallisadoes, are supposed by Ledwich to have been the only forts amongst the Irish antecedent to the invasion by the Norman barons in the reign of Henry II. In many parts of the island, the Irish chiefs had an inveterate dislike to fixed fortifications—one cogent reason why scarcely any castles exist except of English erection; a fact well illustrated by an anecdote of the famous De Courcy, who constructed two castles in Mac Mahon's country, a step which awed the latter into complaisance; and he having sworn fidelity, De Courcy bestowed on him the two castles with their appendant lands. But within a month Mac Mahon demolished both; and, on being asked his reason for doing so, replied that "he did not promise to hold stones but land; and that it was contrary to his nature to live within cold walls whilst the woods were so nigh."

It has often occurred to the writer of these sheets, from actual observation of some hundreds of these mounds, that the term "Rath," as generally applied, is often erroneous. Wolff in his Dictionary positively states the word "Raad" in the Danish language to signify a council; of course, by a common figure of rhetoric, putting the thing for the place, or the place for the thing, this term is properly applied to the larger eminences, some of which are as extensive as old Sarum, and therefore well adapted for assemblies of the people. But Lloyd, in his Dictionary of the Irish-English Language, considers the word even more figuratively, saying that it means a village, a prince's seat, also an artificial mount, or barrow. Now the fact is, that many of the smaller mounts, where placed singly, may be, and some of them by opening have been proved to be, Tumuli, or sepulchral monuments; but others, placed in lines of communication for miles together, for they are never found in groups as upon Salisbury plain, were evidently for exploratory purposes or chains of military posts, a most remarkable instance of which may be seen on the road from Belfast towards Templepatrick, where there is a line of them within sight of each other for several miles, leading through the valley of communication from Belfast Lough towards Lough Neagh, between the Cave Hill and Carnmoney mountain, and connected with the very curious mount at the Rough Fort, which looks down upon a bog called King's Moss at the foot of the Carrantoll mountains, in the centre of which is a most extensive Rath, about 10 yards high, and at least 60 in diameter, with a raised bank round its summit faced with rough stones towards the area. Part of one side having been broken into, it seemed as if the whole had been raised upon rough stone-work, the materials for which must have been brought from a considerable distance. These, both large and small, are sometimes called moats; and some, of the largest size, are designated by the appellation of Dun or Doon.

We now come to monuments of more recent date, of which the

RELIGIOUS ANTIQUITIES

deserve the first consideration; and of these some

Churches may perhaps be as old as the 11th or 12th century, and not earlier; for although many were built immediately after the conversion by St. Patrick, about five centuries after Christ, yet all these were simply of wood or wattled, and therefore long extinct. Along with these we may class the

Cells and Hermitages, rude and composed of upright stones with an impost, where saints led an eremitic life, perhaps sometimes adapting the older Druidical cromlechs to their more modern purposes, just in the same manner as several of the

Crosses are supposed by Ledwich to have been carved upon the ancient upright pyramidal stones of pagan idolaters. These Crosses have neither that light and taper form nor elegant Gothic workmanship which distinguish our ancient specimens in England; but though simple in design they are yet rich in sculpture. Sir R. C. Hoare thinks them coeval with the Round Towers, about the 9th or 10th century.

This part of the subject must not be dismissed without some notice of the stone-roofed Chapels of the ancient Irish, which Ledwich considers as exhibiting, along with other remains, some ideas of the Egyptian and Grecian styles of architecture; in which opinion he is more than sanctioned both by O'Halloran and Archdall, who claim an early knowledge of architecture for the aboriginal Irish. Mr. Ledwich, however considers these as the first specimens of stone and mortar ever seen in the island; as raised by the Ostmen, and intended solely for the preservation of reliques. Several of these present themselves to the tourist as objects of curiosity. One may be seen near the cathedral of Killaloe, supposed to have been the depository of the reliques of St. Flannan. The tourist in Ireland cannot fail to be struck with the number of monastic remains, of which the churches or chapels are mostly standing, though unroofed and in ruins. These he will always find surrounded by crowded cemeteries; and Sir R. C. Hoare observes that he was informed the great frequency of the fact proceeds from the consolidation of parishes at a period when the Catholic predominated over the Protestant religion. He adds, in direct opposition to modern assertions, that the latter now begins to gain ground, as application has been made for the restoration of many of those dilapidated churches, and some have already been rebuilt. Of these ancient specimens, some few are of Saxon architecture, particularly Kilsheel church in Tipperary, having a Saxon doorway, once rich in sculpture, but now defaced. In general the Church ruins consist of little more than the shell of a small edifice with two gable ends and scarcely any windows, always enveloped in ivy: in some places they appear at distances of every 4 or 5 miles. But Sir R. C. Hoare remarks, that although monastic architecture may be inferior to that of the sister kingdoms, yet