influences, carried by the great trade-routes, often independent of political contact—The prehistoric relationship of Sumerian culture to that of Egypt—Alleged traces of strong cultural influence—The hypothesis of a Semitic invasion of Upper Egypt in the light of more recent excavations—Character of the Neolithic and early dynastic cultures of Egypt, as deduced from a study of the early graves and their contents—Changes which may be traced to improvements in technical skill—Confirmation from a study of the skulls—Native origin of the Egyptian system of writing and absence of Babylonian influence—Misleading character of other cultural comparisons—Problem of the bulbous mace-head and the stone cylindrical seal—Prehistoric migrations of the cylinder—Semitic elements in Egyptian civilization—Syria a link in the historic period between the Euphrates and the Nile—Relations of Elam and Sumer—Evidence of early Semitic influence in Elamite culture and proof of its persistence—Elam prior to the Semitic conquest—The Proto-Elamite script of independent development—Its disappearance paralleled by that of the Hittite hieroglyphs—Character of the earlier strata of the mounds at Susa and presence of Neolithic remains—The prehistoric pottery of Susa and Mussian—Improbability of suggested connections between the cultures of Elam and of predynastic Egypt—More convincing parallels in Asia Minor and Russian Turkestan—Relation of the prehistoric peoples of Elam to the Elamites of history—The Neolithic settlement at Nineveh and the prehistoric cultures of Western Asia—Importance of Syria in the spread of Babylonian culture westward—The extent of early Babylonian influence in Cyprus, Crete, and the area of Aegean civilization—321

APPENDICES

I. Recent Explorations in Turkestan in their Relation to the Sumerian Problem—351

II. A Chronological List of the Kings and Rulers of Sumer and Akkad—359

INDEX—363

LIST OF PLATES

I. Stele of Narâm-Sin, representing the king and his allies in triumph over their enemie — Frontispiece

II. Doorway of a building at Tello erected by Gudea; on the left is a later building of the Seleucid Era 20

III. Outer face of a foundation-wall at Tello, built by Ur-Bau 26

IV. Limestone figure of an early Sumerian patesi, or high official 40

V. Fragment of Sumerian sculpture representing scenes of worship 52

VI. The Blau monuments 62

VII. Diorite statue of Gudea, represented as the architect of the temple of Gatumdug 66

VIII. Clay relief stamped with the figure of a Babylonian hero, and fragment of limestone sculptured in relief; both objects illustrate the symbol of the spouting vase 72

IX. Impressions of early cylinder-seals, engraved with scenes representing heroes and mythological beings in conflict with lions and bulls 76

X. South-eastern facade of a building at Tello, erected by Ur-Ninâ 90

XI. Limestone figures of early Sumerian rulers 102

XII. Plaques of Ur-Ninâ and of Dudu 111

XIII. Portion of these "Stele of the Vultures" sculptured with scenes representing Eannatum leading his troops in battle and on the march 124

XIV. The burial of the dead after battle 138

XV. Portion of a black basalt mortar bearing an inscription of Eannatum 146

XVI. Brick of Eannatum, recording his genealogy and conquests and commemorating the sinking of a well in the temple of Ningirsu 154

XVII. Marble gate-socket, bearing an inscription of Entemena 162

XVIII. Silver vase dedicated to the god Ningirsu by Entemena 168