work.

Patient application of these new sources of bombarding particles resulted in the creation of small quantities of hundreds of radioactive isotopic species, each with distinctive characteristics. In turn, as we shall see, many ways to use radioisotopes have been developed in medical therapy, diagnosis, and research. By now, more than 3000 hospitals hold licenses from the Atomic Energy Commission to use radioisotopes. In addition, many thousands of doctors, dentists, and hospitals have X-ray machines that they use for some of the same broad purposes. One of the results of all this is that every month new uses of radioisotopes are developed.

More persons are trained every year in methods of radioisotope use and more manufacturers are producing and packaging radioactive materials. This booklet tells some of the successes achieved with these materials for medical purposes.

What Is Radiation?

Radiation is the propagation of radiant energy in the form of waves or particles. It includes electromagnetic radiation ranging from radio waves, infrared heat waves, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X rays to gamma rays. It may also include beams of particles of which electrons, positrons, neutrons, protons, deuterons, and alpha particles are the best known.[4]

What Is Radioactivity?

It took several years following the basic discovery by Becquerel, and the work of many investigators, to systematize the information about this phenomenon. Radioactivity is defined as the property, possessed by some materials, of spontaneously emitting alpha or beta particles or gamma rays as the unstable (or radioactive) nuclei of their atoms disintegrate.

What Are Radioisotopes?

Frederick Soddy

In the 19th Century an Englishman, John Dalton, put forth his atomic theory, which stated that all atoms of the same element were exactly alike. This remained unchallenged for 100 years, until experiments by the British chemist, Frederick Soddy, proved conclusively that the element neon consisted of two different kinds of atoms. All were alike in chemical behavior but some had an atomic weight (their mass relative to other atoms) of 20 and some a weight of 22. He coined the word isotope to describe one of two or more atoms having the same atomic number but different atomic weights.[5]

Radioisotopes are isotopes that are unstable, or radioactive, and give off radiation spontaneously. Many radioisotopes are produced by bombarding suitable targets with neutrons now readily available inside atomic reactors. Some of them, however, are more satisfactorily created by the action of protons, deuterons, or other subatomic particles that have been given high velocities in a cyclotron or similar accelerator.

Radioactivity is a process that is practically uninfluenced by any of the factors, such as temperature and pressure, that are used to control the rate of chemical reactions. The rate of radioactive decay appears to be affected only by the structure of the unstable (decaying) nucleus. Each radioisotope has its own half-life, which is the time it takes for one half the number of atoms present to decay. These half-lives vary from fractions of a second to millions of years, depending only upon the atom. We shall see that the half-life is one factor considered in choosing a particular isotope for certain uses.

HALF-LIFE PATTERN OF STRONTIUM-90

Most artificially made radioisotopes have relatively short half-lives. This makes them useful in two ways. First, it means that very little material is needed to obtain a significant number of disintegrations. It should be evident that, with any given number of radioactive atoms, the number of disintegrations per second will be inversely proportional to the half-life. Second, by the time 10 half-lives have elapsed, the number of disintegrations per second will have dwindled to ¹/₁₀₂₄ the original number, and the amount of radioactive material is so small it is usually no longer significant. (Note the decrease in the figure above.)

How Are Radioisotopes Used?

A radioisotope may be used either as a source of radiation energy (energy is always released during decay), or as a tracer: an identifying and readily detectable marker material. The location of this material during a given treatment can be determined with a suitable instrument even though an unweighably small amount of it is present in a mixture with other materials. On the following pages we will discuss medical uses of individual radioisotopes—first those used as tracers and then those used for their energy. In general, tracers are used for analysis and diagnosis, and radiant-energy emitters are used for treatment (therapy).

Radioisotopes offer two advantages. First, they can be used in extremely small amounts. As little as one-billionth of a gram can be measured with suitable apparatus. Secondly, they can be directed to various definitely known parts of the body. For example, radioactive sodium iodide behaves in the body just the same as normal sodium iodide found in the iodized salt used in many homes. The iodine concentrates in the thyroid gland where it is converted to the hormone thyroxin. Other radioactive, or “tagged”, atoms can be routed to bone marrow, red blood cells, the liver, the kidneys, or made to remain in the blood stream, where they are measured using suitable instruments.[6]

Of the three types of radiation, alpha particles (helium nuclei) are of such low penetrating power that they cannot be used for measurement from outside the body. Beta particles (electrons) have a moderate penetrating power, therefore they produce useful therapeutic results in the vicinity of their release, and they can be detected by sensitive counting devices. Gamma rays are highly energetic, and they can be readily detected by counters—radiation measurement devices—used outside the body.

Relative penetration of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.

For comparison, a sheet of paper stops alpha particles, a block of wood stops beta particles, and a thick concrete wall stops gamma rays.

In one way or another, the key to the usefulness of radioisotopes lies in the energy of the radiation. When radiation is used for treatment, the energy absorbed by the body is used either to destroy tissue, particularly cancer, or to suppress some function of the body. Properly calculated and applied doses of radiation can be used to produce the desired effect with minimum side reactions. Expressed in terms of the usual work or heat units, ergs or calories, the amount of energy associated with a radiation dose is small. The significance lies in the fact that this energy is released in such a way as to produce