GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF FISHES

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Copyright, 1905
BY
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
Published March, 1905

To
Theodore Gill,
Ichthyologist, Philosopher, Critic, Master in Taxonomy,
this volume is dedicated.

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PREFACE

This work treats of the fish from all the varied points of view of the different branches of the study of Ichthyology. In general all traits of the fish are discussed, those which the fish shares with other animals most briefly, those which relate to the evolution of the group and the divergence of its various classes and orders most fully. The extinct forms are restored to their place in the series and discussed along with those still extant.

In general, the writer has drawn on his own experience as an ichthyologist, and with this on all the literature of the science. Special obligations are recognized in the text. To Dr. Charles H. Gilbert, he is indebted for a critical reading of most of his proof-sheets; to Dr. Bashford Dean, for criticism of the proof-sheets of the chapters on the lower fishes; to Dr. William Emerson Ritter, for assistance in the chapters on Protochordata; to Dr. George Clinton Price, for revision of the chapters on lancelets and lampreys, and to Mr. George Clark, Secretary of Stanford University, for assistance of various kinds, notably in the preparation of the index. To Dr. Theodore Gill, he has been for many years constantly indebted for illuminating suggestions, and to Dr. Barton Warren Evermann, for a variety of favors. To Dr. Richard Rathbun, the writer owes the privilege of using illustrations from the "Fishes of North and Middle America" by Jordan and Evermann. The remaining plates were drawn for this work by Mary H. Wellman, Kako Morita, and Sekko Shimada. Many of the plates are original. Those copied from other authors are so indicated in the text.

No bibliography has been included in this work. A list of writers so complete as to have value to the student would make a volume of itself. The principal works and their authors are discussed in the

chapter on the History of Ichthyology, and with this for the present the reader must be contented.

The writer has hoped to make a book valuable to technical students, interesting to anglers and nature lovers, and instructive to all who open its pages.

David Starr Jordan.

Palo Alto, Santa Clara County, Cal.,
October, 1904.

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ERRATA[1]
VOL. I

• Frontispiece, for Paramia quinqueviltata read Paramia quinquevittata
• Page xiii, line 10, for Filefish read Tilefish
• 39, " 15, for Science read Sciences
• 52, lines 4 and 5, transpose hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid
• 115, line 24, for Hexagramidæ read Hexagrammidæ
• 162, " 7, The female salmon does as much as the male in covering the eggs.
• 169, last line, for immmediately read immediately
• 189, legend, for Miaki read Misaki
• 313, line 26, for sand-pits read sand-spits
• 322, " 7 and elsewhere, for Wood's Hole read Woods Hole
• 324, " 15, for Roceus read Roccus
• 327, " next to last, for masquinonqy read masquinongy
• 357, " 5, for Filefish read Tilefish
• 361, " 26, for 255 feet read 25 feet
• 368, " 26, for infallibility read fallibility

tag="{http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml}a">414, " 22, for West Indies read East Indies

419, " 23, for-99 read-96

420, " 28, for were read are

428, " 24, for Geffroy, St. Hilaire read Geoffroy St. Hilaire

428, " 25, for William Kitchener Parker read William Kitchen Parker

462, " 32, for Enterpneusta read Enteropneusta

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CONTENTS
VOL. I.

CHAPTER I. THE LIFE OF THE FISH (Lepomis megalotis). PAGE What is a Fish?—The Long-eared Sunfish.—Form of the Fish.—Face of the Fish.—How the Fish Breathes.—Teeth of the Fish.—How the Fish Sees.—Color of the Fish.—The Lateral Line.—The Fins of the Fish.—The Skeleton of the Fish.—The Fish in Action.—The Air-bladder.—The Brain of the Fish.—The Fish's Nest. 3 CHAPTER II. THE EXTERIOR OF THE FISH. Form of Body.—Measurement of the Fish.—The Scales or Exoskeleton.—Ctenoid and Cycloid Scales.—Placoid Scales.—Bony and Prickly Scales.—Lateral Line.—Function of the Lateral Line.—The Fins of Fishes.—Muscles. 16 CHAPTER III. THE DISSECTION OF THE FISH. The Blue-green Sunfish.—The Viscera.—Organs of Nutrition.—The Alimentary Canal.—The Spiral Valve.—Length of the Intestine. 26 CHAPTER IV. THE SKELETON OF THE FISH. Specialization of the Skeleton.—Homologies of Bones of Fishes.—Parts of the Skeleton.—Names of Bones of Fishes.—Bones of the Cranium.—Bones of the Jaws.—The Suspensorium of the Mandible.—Membrane Bones of Head.—Branchial Bones.—The Gill-arches.—The Pharyngeals.—The Vertebral Column.—The Interneurals and Interhæmals.—The Pectoral Limb.—The Shoulder-girdle.—The Posterior Limb.—Degeneration.—The Skeleton in Primitive Fishes.—The Skeleton of Sharks.—The Archipterygium. 34 CHAPTER V.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE FINS OF FISHES. Origin of the Fins of Fishes.—Origin of the Paired Fins.—Development of the Paired Fins in the Embryo.—Evidences of Palæontology.—Current Theories as to Origin of Paired Fin.—Balfour's Theory of the Lateral Fold.—Objections.—Objections to Gegenbaur's Theory.—Kerr's Theory of Modified External Gills.—Uncertain Conclusions.—Forms of the Tail in Fishes.—Homologies of the Pectoral Limb.—The Girdle in Fishes other than Dipnoans. 62 CHAPTER VI. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. How Fishes Breathe.—The Gill Structures.—The Air-bladder.—Origin of the Air-bladder.—The Origin of Lungs.—The Heart of the Fish.—The Flow of Blood. 91 CHAPTER VII. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The Nervous System.—The Brain of the Fish.—The Pineal Organ.—The Brain of Primitive Fishes.—The Spinal Cord.—The Nerves. 109 CHAPTER VIII. THE ORGANS OF SENSE. The Organs of Smell.—The Organs of Sight.—The Organs of Hearing.—Voices of Fishes.—The Sense of Taste.—The Sense of Touch. 115 CHAPTER IX. THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. The Germ-cells.—The Eggs of Fishes.—Protection of the Eggs.—Sexual Modification. 124 CHAPTER X. THE EMBRYOLOGY AND GROWTH OF FISHES. Post-embryonic Development.—General Laws of Development.—The Significance of Facts of Development.—The Development of the Bony Fishes.—The Larval Development of Fishes.—Peculiar Larval Forms.—The Development of Flounders.—Hybridism.—The Age of Fishes.—Tenacity of Life.—Effect of Temperature on Fishes.—Transportation of Fishes.—Reproduction of Lost Parts.—Monstrosities among Fishes. 131 CHAPTER XI. INSTINCTS, HABITS, AND ADAPTATIONS. The Habits of Fishes.—Irritability of Animals.—Nerve-cells and Fibers.—The Brain or Sensorium.—Reflex Action.—Instinct.—Classification of Instincts.—Variability of Instincts.—Adaptations to Environment.—Flight of Fishes.—Quiescent Fishes.—Migratory Fishes.—Anadromous Fishes.—Pugnacity of Fishes.—Fear and Anger in Fishes.—Calling the Fishes.—Sounds of Fishes.—Lurking Fishes.—The Unsymmetrical Eyes of the Flounder.—Carrying Eggs in the Mouth. 152 CHAPTER XII. ADAPTATIONS OF FISHES. Spines of the

Catfishes.—Venomous Spines.—The Lancet of the Surgeon-fish.—Spines of the Sting-ray.—Protection through Poisonous Flesh of Fishes.—Electric Fishes.—Photophores or Luminous Organs.—Photophores in the Iniomous Fishes.—Photophores of Porichthys.—Globefishes.—Remoras.—Sucking-disks of Clingfishes.—Lampreys and Hogfishes.—The Swordfishes.—The Paddle-fishes.—The Sawfishes.—Peculiarities of Jaws and Teeth.—The Angler-fishes.—Relation of Number of Vertebræ to Temperature, and the Struggle for Existence.—Number of Vertebræ: Soft-rayed Fishes; Spiny-rayed Fishes; Fresh-water Fishes; Pelagic Fishes.—Variations in Fin-rays.—Relation of Numbers to Conditions of Life.—Degeneration of Structures.—Conditions of Evolution among Fishes. 179 CHAPTER XIII. COLORS OF FISHES. Pigmentation.—Protective Coloration.—Protective Markings.—Sexual Coloration.—Nuptial Coloration.—Coral-reef Fishes.—Recognition Marks.—Intensity of Coloration.—Fading of Pigments in Spirits.—Variation in Pattern. 226 CHAPTER XIV. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. Zoogeography.—General Laws of Distribution.—Species Absent through Barriers.—Species Absent through Failure to Maintain Foothold.—Species Changed through Natural Selection.—Extinction of Species.—Barriers Checking Movements of Marine Species.—Temperature the Central Fact in Distribution.—Agency of Ocean Currents.—Centers of Distribution.—Distribution of Marine Fishes.—Pelagic Fishes.—Bassalian Fishes.—Littoral Fishes.—Distribution of Littoral Fishes by Coast Lines.—Minor Faunal Areas.—Equatorial Fishes most Specialized.—Realms of Distribution of Fresh-water Fishes.—Northern Zone.—Equatorial Zone.—Southern Zone.—Origin of the New Zealand Fauna. 237 CHAPTER XV. ISTHMUS BARRIERS SEPARATING FISH FAUNAS. The Isthmus of Suez.—The Fish Fauna of Japan.—Fresh-water Faunas of Japan.—Faunal Areas of Marine Fishes of Japan.—Resemblance of Japanese and Mediterranean Fish Faunas.—Significance of Resemblances.—Differences between Japanese and Mediterranean Fish Faunas.—Source of Faunal Resemblances.—Effects of Direction of Shore Lines.—Numbers of Genera in Different Faunas.—Significance of Rare Forms.—Distribution of Shore-fishes.—Extension of Indian Fauna.—The Isthmus of Suez as a Barrier to Distribution.—Geological Evidences of Submergence of Isthmus of Suez.—The Cape of Good Hope as a Barrier to Fishes.—Relations of Japan to the Mediterranean Explained by Present Conditions.—The Isthmus of Panama as a Barrier to Distribution.—Unlikeness of Species on the Shores of the Isthmus of Panama.—Views of Dr. Günther on the Isthmus of Panama.—Catalogue of Fishes of Panama.—Conclusions of Evermann & Jenkins.—Conclusions of Dr. Hill.—Final Hypothesis as to Panama. 255 CHAPTER XVI. DISPERSION OF FRESH-WATER FISHES. The Dispersion of Fishes.—The Problem of Oatka Creek.—Generalizations as to

Dispersion.—Questions Raised by Agassiz.—Conclusions of Cope.—Questions Raised by Cope.—Views of Günther.—Fresh-water Fishes of North America.—Characters of Species.—Meaning of Species.—Special Creation Impossible.—Origin of American Species of Fishes. 282 CHAPTER XVII. DISPERSION OF FRESH-WATER FISHES. (Continued.) Barriers to Dispersion of Fresh-water Fishes: Local Barriers.—Favorable Waters Have Most Species.—Watersheds.—How Fishes Cross Watersheds.—The Suletind.—The Cassiquiare.—Two-Ocean Pass.—Mountain Chains.—Upland Fishes.—Lowland Fishes.—Cuban Fishes.—Swampy Watersheds.—The Great Basin of Utah.—Arctic Species in Lakes.—Causes of Dispersion still in Operation. 297 CHAPTER XVIII. FISHES AS FOOD FOR MAN. The Flesh of Fishes.—Relative Rank of Food-fishes.—Abundance of Food-fishes.—Variety of Tropical Fishes.—Economic Fisheries.—Angling. 320 CHAPTER XIX. DISEASES OF FISHES. Contagious Diseases: Crustacean Parasites.—Myxosporidia or Parasitic Protozoa.—Parasitic Worms: Trematodes, Cestodes.—The Worm of the Yellowstone.—The Heart Lake Tape-worm.—Thorn-head Worms.—Nematodes.—Parasitic Fungi.—Earthquakes.—Mortality of Filefish. 340 CHAPTER XX. THE MYTHOLOGY OF FISHES. The Mermaid.—The Monkfish.—The Bishop-fish.—The Sea-serpent. 359 CHAPTER XXI. THE CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES. Taxonomy.—Defects in Taxonomy.—Analogy and Homology.—Coues on Classification.—Species as Twigs of a Genealogical Tree.—Nomenclature.—The Conception of Genus and Species.—The Trunkfishes.—Trinomial Nomenclature.—Meaning of Species.—Generalization and Specialization.—High and Low Forms.—The Problem of the Highest Fishes. 367 CHAPTER XXII. THE HISTORY OF ICHTHYOLOGY. Aristotle.—Rondelet.—Marcgraf.—Osbeck.—Artedi.—Linnæus.— Forskål.—Risso.—Bloch.—Lacépède.—Cuvier.—Valenciennes.— Agassiz.—Bonaparte.—Günther.—Boulenger.—Le Sueur.—Müller.— Gill.—Cope.—Lütken.—Steindachner.—Vaillant.—Bleeker.— Schlegel.—Poey.—Day.—Baird.—Garman.—Gilbert.—Evermann.— Eigenmann.—Zittel.—Traquair.—Woodward.—Dean.—Eastman.—Hay.— Gegenbaur.—Balfour.—Parker.—Dollo. 387 CHAPTER XXIII.

class="x-ebookmaker-pageno" title="[Pg xvi]"/> THE COLLECTION OF FISHES. How to Secure Fishes.—How to Preserve Fishes.—Value of Formalin.—Records of Fishes.—Eternal Vigilance. 429 CHAPTER XXIV. THE EVOLUTION OF FISHES. The Geological Distribution of Fishes.—The Earliest Sharks.—Devonian Fishes.—Carboniferous Fishes.—Mesozoic Fishes.—Tertiary Fishes.—Factors of Extinction.—Fossilization of a Fish.—The Earliest Fishes.—The Cyclostomes.—The Ostracophores.—The Arthrodires.—The Sharks.—Origin of the Shark.—The Chimæras.—The Dipnoans.—The Crossopterygians.—The Actinopteri.—The Bony Fishes. 435 CHAPTER XXV. THE PROTOCHORDATA. The Chordate Animals.—The Protochordates.—Other Terms Used in Classification.—The Enteropneusta.—Classification of Enteropneusta.—Family Harrimaniidæ.—Balanoglossidæ.—Low Organization of Harrimaniidæ. 460 CHAPTER XXVI. THE TUNICATES, OR ASCIDIANS. Structure of Tunicates.—Development of Tunicates.—Reproduction of Tunicates.—Habits of Tunicates.—Larvacea.—Ascidiacea.—Thaliacea.—Origin of Tunicates.—Degeneration of Tunicates. 467 CHAPTER XXVII. THE LEPTOCARDII, OR LANCELETS. The Lancelet.—Habits of Lancelets.—Species of Lancelets.—Origin of Lancelets. 482 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE CYCLOSTOMES, OR LAMPREYS. The Lampreys.—Structure of the Lamprey.—Supposed Extinct Cyclostomes.—Conodontes.—Orders of Cyclostomes.—The Hyperotreta, or Hagfishes.—The Hyperoartia, or Lampreys.—Food of Lampreys.—Metamorphosis of Lampreys.—Mischief Done by Lampreys.—Migration or "Running" of Lampreys.—Requisite Conditions for Spawning with Lampreys.—The Spawning Process with Lampreys.—What Becomes of Lampreys after Spawning? 486 CHAPTER XXIX. THE CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII, OR SHARK-LIKE FISHES. The Sharks.—Characters of Elasmobranchs.—Classification of Elasmobranchs.—Subclasses of Elasmobranchs.—The Selachii.—Hasse's Classification of Elasmobranchs.—Other Classifications of Elasmobranchs.—Primitive Sharks.—Order Pleuropterygii.—Order Acanthodii.—Dean on Acanthodii.—Order Ichthyotomi. 506 CHAPTER XXX. THE TRUE SHARKS. Order Notidani.—Family

Hexanchidæ.—Family Chlamydoselachidæ.—Order Asterospondyli.—Suborder Cestraciontes.—Family Heterodontidæ.—Edestus and its Allies.—Onchus.—Family Cochliodontidæ.—Suborder Galei.—Family Scyliorhinidæ.—The Lamnoid, or Mackerel-sharks.—Family Mitsukurinidæ, the Goblin-sharks.—Family Alopiidæ, or Thresher-sharks.—Family Pseudotriakidæ.—Family Lamnidæ.—Man-eating Sharks.—Family Cetorhinidæ, or Basking Sharks.—Family Rhineodontidæ.—The Carcharioid Sharks, or Requins.—Family Sphyrnidæ, or Hammer-head Sharks.—The Order of Tectospondyli.—Suborder Cyclospondyli.—Family Squalidæ.—Family Dalatiidæ.—Family Echinorhinidæ.—Suborder Rhinæ.—Family Pristiophoridæ, or Saw-sharks.—Suborder Batoidei, or Rays.—Pristididæ, or Sawfishes.—Rhinobatidæ, or Guitar-fishes.—Rajidæ, or Skates.—Narcobatidæ, or Torpedoes.—Petalodontidæ.—Dasyatidæ, or Sting-rays.—Myliobatidæ.—Family Psammodontidæ.—Family Mobulidæ. 523 CHAPTER XXXI. THE HOLOCEPHALI, OR CHIMÆRAS. The Chimæras.—Relationship of Chimæras.—Family Chimæridæ.—Rhinochimæridæ.—Extinct Chimæroids.—Ichthyodorulites. 561 CHAPTER XXXII. THE CLASS OSTRACOPHORI. Ostracophores.—Nature of Ostracophores.—Orders of Ostracophores.—Order Heterostraci.—Order Osteostraci.—Order Antiarcha.—Order Anaspida. 568 CHAPTER XXXIII. ARTHRODIRES. The Arthrodires.—Occurrence of Arthrodires.—Arthrognathi.—Anarthrodira.—Stegothalami.— Arthrodira.—Temnothoraci.—Arthrothoraci.—Relations of Arthrodires.—Suborder Cycliæ.—Palæospondylus.—Gill on Palæospondylus.—Views as to the Relationships of Palæospondylus: Huxley, Traquair, 1890. Traquair, 1893. Traquair, 1897. Smith Woodward, 1892. Dawson, 1893. Gill, 1896. Dean, 1896. Dean, 1898. Parker & Haswell, 1897. Gegenbaur, 1898.—Relationships of Palæospondylus 581 CHAPTER XXXIV. THE CROSSOPTERYGII. Class Teleostomi.—Subclass Crossopterygii.—Order of Amphibians.—The Fins of Crossopterygians.—Orders of Crossopterygians.—Haplistia.—Rhipidistia.—Megalichthyidæ.—Order Actinistia.—Order Cladistia.—The Polypteridæ 598 CHAPTER XXXV. SUBCLASS DIPNEUSTI, OR LUNGFISHES. The Lungfishes.—Classification of Dipnoans.—Order Ctenodipterini.—Order Sirenoidei.—Family Ceratodontidæ.—Development of Neoceratodus.—Lepidosirenidæ.—Kerr on the Habits of Lepidosiren 609

tag="{http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml}a">[1] For most of this list of errata I am indebted to the kindly interest of Dr. B. W. Evermann.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
VOL. I.