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HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION IN ENGLAND.
BY
HENRY THOMAS BUCKLE.
IN THREE VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
NEW EDITION.
TORONTO:
ROSE-BELFORD PUBLISHING COMPANY,
60 YORK STREET.
1878.
ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I. STATEMENT OF THE RESOURCES FOR INVESTIGATING HISTORY, AND PROOFS OF THE REGULARITY OF HUMAN ACTIONS. THESE ACTIONS ARE GOVERNED BY MENTAL AND PHYSICAL LAWS: THEREFORE BOTH SETS OF LAWS MUST BE STUDIED, AND THERE CAN BE NO HISTORY WITHOUT THE NATURAL SCIENCES. PAGE Materials for writing history 1–3 Narrow range of knowledge possessed by historians 4–5 Object of the present work 6 Human actions, if not the result of fixed laws, must be due to chance or to supernatural interference 8 Probable origin of free-will and predestination 9–12 Theological basis of predestination, and metaphysical basis of free-will 12–16 The actions of men are caused by their antecedents, which exist either in the human mind or in the external world 18–20 Therefore history is the modification of man by nature, and of nature by man 20–21 Statistics prove the regularity of actions in regard to murder and other crimes 22–26 Similar proof respecting suicides 27–29 Also respecting the number of marriages annually contracted 31–32 And respecting the number of letters sent undirected 32 The historian must ascertain whether mind or nature has most influenced human actions; and therefore there can be no history without physical science 33–35 Note A. Passages from Kant on free-will and necessity 35–38CHAPTER II. INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY PHYSICAL LAWS OVER THE ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY AND OVER THE CHARACTER OF INDIVIDUALS. Man is affected by four classes of physical agents; namely, climate, food, soil, and the general aspect of nature 39–41 Operation of these agents on the accumulation of wealth 41–51 Their operation on the distribution of wealth 51–64 Illustrations of these principles from Ireland 65–67 From Hindustan 69–82 From Egypt 82–93 From Central America 93–94 And from Mexico and Peru 95 Operation of physical laws in Brazil 101–108 Influence of the general aspects of nature upon the imagination and the
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understanding 118–119 Under some aspects, nature is more prominent than man; under others, man more than nature 120 In the former case the imagination is more stimulated than the understanding, and to this class all the earliest civilizations belong 120–121 The imagination is excited by earthquakes and volcanoes 122–124 And by danger generally 125–126 Also by an unhealthy climate making life precarious 126–130 From these causes the civilizations exterior to Europe are mainly influenced by the imagination, those in Europe by the understanding 130–132 This proposition illustrated by a comparison between Hindustan and Greece 132–147 Further illustration from Central America 147–148 Chemical and physiological note on the connection between food and animal heat 148–151
CHAPTER III. EXAMINATION OF THE METHOD EMPLOYED BY METAPHYSICIANS FOR DISCOVERING MENTAL LAWS. In the last chapter, two leading facts have been established, which broadly separate Europe from other parts of the world 152–156 Hence it appears that of the two classes of mental and physical laws the mental are the more important for the history of Europe 156–157 Examination of the two metaphysical methods of generalizing mental laws 158–165 Failure of these methods 165–167
CHAPTER IV. MENTAL LAWS ARE EITHER MORAL OR INTELLECTUAL. COMPARISON OF MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL LAWS, AND INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECT PRODUCED BY EACH ON THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. The historical method of studying mental laws is superior to the metaphysical method 168–174 The progress of society is twofold, moral and intellectual 174–175 Comparison of the moral with the intellectual element 175 There is no evidence that the natural faculties of man improve 176–177 Progress, therefore, depends on an improvement in the circumstances under which the faculties come into play 178 The standard of action having varied in every age, the causes of action must be variable 179 But moral truths have not changed 179 And intellectual truths are constantly changing 181 Intellectual truths are the cause of progress 182 Ignorant men are mischievous in proportion to their sincerity 183–185 Illustrations of this from Rome and Spain
CHAPTER III. EXAMINATION OF THE METHOD EMPLOYED BY METAPHYSICIANS FOR DISCOVERING MENTAL LAWS. In the last chapter, two leading facts have been established, which broadly separate Europe from other parts of the world 152–156 Hence it appears that of the two classes of mental and physical laws the mental are the more important for the history of Europe 156–157 Examination of the two metaphysical methods of generalizing mental laws 158–165 Failure of these methods 165–167
CHAPTER IV. MENTAL LAWS ARE EITHER MORAL OR INTELLECTUAL. COMPARISON OF MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL LAWS, AND INQUIRY INTO THE EFFECT PRODUCED BY EACH ON THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY. The historical method of studying mental laws is superior to the metaphysical method 168–174 The progress of society is twofold, moral and intellectual 174–175 Comparison of the moral with the intellectual element 175 There is no evidence that the natural faculties of man improve 176–177 Progress, therefore, depends on an improvement in the circumstances under which the faculties come into play 178 The standard of action having varied in every age, the causes of action must be variable 179 But moral truths have not changed 179 And intellectual truths are constantly changing 181 Intellectual truths are the cause of progress 182 Ignorant men are mischievous in proportion to their sincerity 183–185 Illustrations of this from Rome and Spain
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tag="{http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml}a">185–188 The diminution of religious persecution is owing to the progress of knowledge 188–190 The diminution of the warlike spirit is owing to the same cause 190–192 Illustrations from Russia and Turkey 195–197 As civilization advances, men of intellect avoid becoming soldiers 198 Illustrations of this from ancient Greece and modern Europe 198–202 The three principal ways in which the progress of knowledge has lessened the warlike spirit are: 1. The invention of gunpowder 203–209 2. The discoveries made by political economists 210–211 3. The application of steam to purposes of travelling 219–223 Inference to be drawn as to the causes of social progress 224–226
CHAPTER V. INQUIRY INTO THE INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND GOVERNMENT. Recapitulation of preceding arguments 227 Moral feelings influence individuals, but do not affect society in the aggregate 228–229 This being as yet little understood, historians have not collected proper materials for writing history 230 Reasons why the present history is restricted to England 231–235 Comparison of the history of England with that of France 235–236 With that of Germany 237–240 With that of the United States of America 240–242 Necessity of ascertaining the fundamental laws of intellectual progress 243 Much may be gained in that respect from studying the histories of Germany, America, France, Spain, and Scotland 244–246 Deductive spirit in Scotland 246–252 Influence of religion on the progress of society 253–266 Illustration from the efforts of missionaries 254–256 Illustration from the Hebrews 257–258 Illustration from the early history of Christianity 259–262 And from Sweden and Scotland 263–266 Influence of literature on the progress of society 268–272 Influence of government on the progress of society 272–287 Illustrated by repeal of the corn-laws
CHAPTER V. INQUIRY INTO THE INFLUENCE EXERCISED BY RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND GOVERNMENT. Recapitulation of preceding arguments 227 Moral feelings influence individuals, but do not affect society in the aggregate 228–229 This being as yet little understood, historians have not collected proper materials for writing history 230 Reasons why the present history is restricted to England 231–235 Comparison of the history of England with that of France 235–236 With that of Germany 237–240 With that of the United States of America 240–242 Necessity of ascertaining the fundamental laws of intellectual progress 243 Much may be gained in that respect from studying the histories of Germany, America, France, Spain, and Scotland 244–246 Deductive spirit in Scotland 246–252 Influence of religion on the progress of society 253–266 Illustration from the efforts of missionaries 254–256 Illustration from the Hebrews 257–258 Illustration from the early history of Christianity 259–262 And from Sweden and Scotland 263–266 Influence of literature on the progress of society 268–272 Influence of government on the progress of society 272–287 Illustrated by repeal of the corn-laws
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href="@public@vhost@g@gutenberg@html@files@44493@[email protected]#Page_273" class="pginternal" tag="{http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml}a">273–274 The best legislation abrogates former legislation 275 The interference of politicians with trade has injured trade 276–278 Legislators have caused smuggling with all its attendant crimes 278–280 They have also increased hypocrisy and perjury 281–283 By their laws against usury they have increased usury 283–284 By other laws they have hindered the advance of knowledge 284–285 England has been less interfered with in these ways than other nations, and is therefore more prosperous than they 286–287
CHAPTER VI. ORIGIN OF HISTORY, AND STATE OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. Conclusions arrived at by the preceding investigations 288 An inquiry into the changes in historical researches will throw light on the changes in society 289–290 The earliest histories are ballads 291–295 One cause of error in history was the invention of writing 296–300 A change of religion in any country also tends to corrupt its early history 300–307 But the most active cause of all was the influence of the clergy 307–308 Absurdities which were consequently believed 309–317 Illustration of this from the history of Charlemagne by Turpin 318–321 And from the history of the Britons by Geoffrey 321–325 The first improvement in writing history began in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 325 But credulity was still prevalent, as is seen in Comines 327–328 And in the predictions of Stœffler respecting the Deluge 330 Also in the work of Dr. Horst on the Golden Tooth 331–332
CHAPTER VII. OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH INTELLECT FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. This absurd way of writing history was the natural result of the state of the age 333 The spirit of doubt was a necessary precursor of improvement 334 Hence the supreme importance of scepticism 335–336 Origin of religious toleration in England 337 Hooker contrasted with Jewel 339–343 Scepticism and spirit of inquiry
CHAPTER VI. ORIGIN OF HISTORY, AND STATE OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. Conclusions arrived at by the preceding investigations 288 An inquiry into the changes in historical researches will throw light on the changes in society 289–290 The earliest histories are ballads 291–295 One cause of error in history was the invention of writing 296–300 A change of religion in any country also tends to corrupt its early history 300–307 But the most active cause of all was the influence of the clergy 307–308 Absurdities which were consequently believed 309–317 Illustration of this from the history of Charlemagne by Turpin 318–321 And from the history of the Britons by Geoffrey 321–325 The first improvement in writing history began in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 325 But credulity was still prevalent, as is seen in Comines 327–328 And in the predictions of Stœffler respecting the Deluge 330 Also in the work of Dr. Horst on the Golden Tooth 331–332
CHAPTER VII. OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH INTELLECT FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. This absurd way of writing history was the natural result of the state of the age 333 The spirit of doubt was a necessary precursor of improvement 334 Hence the supreme importance of scepticism 335–336 Origin of religious toleration in England 337 Hooker contrasted with Jewel 339–343 Scepticism and spirit of inquiry
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on other subjects 343–346 This tendency displayed in Chillingworth 347–350 Chillingworth compared with Hooker and Jewel 350 Subsequent movement in the same direction, and increasing indifference to theological matters 352–355 Great advantage of this 356–358 Under James I. and Charles I. this opposition to authority assumes a political character 359–361 Under Charles II. it takes a frivolous form at court 363 Influence of this spirit upon Sir Thomas Browne 365–367 Its influence upon Boyle 367–370 It causes the establishment of the Royal Society 371 Impetus now given to physical science, and attempts of the clergy to oppose it 372 The clergy are naturally hostile to physical science, because it lessens their own power 372–373 Illustration of this by the superstition of sailors and agriculturists as compared with soldiers and mechanics 375–380 Legislative improvements in the reign of Charles II. in spite of political degradation 380–386 These improvements were due to the sceptical and inquiring spirit 387–388 Aided by the vices of the king 388 And by his dislike of the church 389 He encouraged Hobbes, and neglected the ablest of the clergy 390–393 The clergy, to recover their ground, allied themselves with James II. 394–396 This alliance was dissolved by the Declaration of Indulgence 397–399 The clergy then united with the dissenters and brought about the Revolution of 1688 399–400 Importance of the Revolution 401–403 But the clergy regretted it, and repented of their own act 403 Hostility between them and William III. 405–410 Hence a schism in the church 410–413 Fresh encouragement thus given to scepticism 413–414 Convocation first despised, and then abolished 414–415 After the Revolution the ablest men confine themselves to secular professions, and avoided entering the church 415
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class="chaptitle">The clergy lost all offices out of the church, and their numbers diminished in both Houses of Parliament 416–418 The church rallied for a moment under Anne 418–420 But was weakened by the dissenters, headed by Wesley and Whitefield 420–424 Theology separated from morals and from politics 424–426 Rapid succession of sceptical controversies 427–429 Knowledge begins to be diffused, and takes a popular form 430–433 Political meetings, and publication of parliamentary debates 433–434 Doctrine of personal representation, and idea of independence 436 Corresponding change in the style of authors 436–439 Hence great reforms became inevitable 439–440 This tendency was aided by George I. and George II. 441–443 But discouraged by George III., under whom began a dangerous political reaction 444–446 Ignorance of George III. 446 Subserviency of Pitt 446–449 Incompetence of other statesmen, and the king's hatred of great men 449–451 Deterioration of the House of Lords 451–455 Ability and accomplishments of Burke 458–461 He opposed the views of George III., and was neglected by him 462–467 Burke's subsequent hallucinations and violence 467–476 The king now favoured him 476–477 Policy of George III. respecting America 478–482 This policy reacted upon England 482–483 Policy in regard to France 483–486 This also reacted upon England 486 And produced arbitrary laws against the liberties of England 487–493 Which were zealously enforced by the executive 494–496 Gloomy political prospects of England late in the eighteenth century 496–498 But, owing to the progress of knowledge, a counter reaction was preparing 498–502 To which, and to the increasing power of public opinion, England owes her great reforms of
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the nineteenth century 502–505