SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 460

NEW YORK, OCTOBER 25, 1884

Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 460.

Scientific American established 1845

Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.

Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. CHEMISTRY. ETC.—Wolpert's Method of Estimating the Amount of Carbonic Acid in the Air.—7 Figures. Japanese Camphor.—Its preparation, experiments, and analysis of the camphor oil.—By H. OISHI. II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Links in the History of the Locomotive.—With two engravings of the Rocket. The Flow of Water through Turbines and Screw Propellers.—By ARTHUR RIGG.—Experimental researches.—Impact on level plate.—Impact and reaction in confined channels.—4 figures. Improved Textile Machinery.—The Textile Exhibition at Islington.—5 figures. Endless Rope Haulage.—2 figures. III. TECHNOLOGY.—A Reliable Water Filter.—With engraving. Simple Devices for Distilling Water.—4 figures. Improved Fire Damp Detecter.—With full description and engraving. Camera Attachment for Paper Photo Negatives.—2 figures. Instantaneous Photo Shutter.—1 figure. Sulphurous Acid.—Easy method of preparation for photographic purposes. IV. PHYSICS. ELECTRICITY, ETC.—Steps toward a Kinetic Theory of Matter.—Address by Sir Wm. THOMSON at the Montreal meeting of the British Association. Application of Electricity to Tramways.—By M. HOLROYD SMITH.—7 figures. The Sunshine Recorder.—1 figure. V. ARCHITECTURE AND ART.—The National Monument at Rome.—With full page engraving. On the Evolution of Forms of Art.—From a paper by Prof. JACOBSTHAL.—Plant Forms the archetypes of cashmere patterns.—Ornamental representations of plants of two kinds.—Architectural forms of different ages.—20 figures. VI. NATURAL HISTORY.—The Latest Knowledge about Gapes.—How to keep poultry free from them. The Voyage of the Vettor Pisani.—Shark fishing In the Gulf of Panama.—Capture of Rhinodon typicus, the largest fish in existence. VII. HORTICULTURE, ETC.—The Proper Time for Cutting Timber. Raising Ferns from Spores.—1 figure. The Life History of Vaucheria.—Growth of alga vaucheria under the microscope.—4 figures. VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.—Fires in London and New York. The Greely Arctic Expedition.—With engraving. The Nile Expedition.—1 figure.

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LINKS IN THE HISTORY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.

It is, perhaps, more difficult to write accurate history than anything else, and this is true not only of nations, kings, politicians, or wars, but of events and things witnessed or called into existence in every-day life. In The Engineer for September 17, 1880, we did our best to place a true statement of the facts concerning the Rocket before our readers. In many respects this was the most remarkable steam engine ever built, and about it there ought to be no difficulty, one would imagine, in arriving at the truth. It was for a considerable period the cynosure of all eyes. Engineers all over the world were interested in its performance. Drawings were made of it; accounts were written of it, descriptions of it abounded. Little more than half a century has elapsed since it startled the world by its performance at Rainhill, and yet it is not too much to say that the truth—the whole truth, that is to say—can never now be written. We are, however, able to put some

facts before our readers now which have never before been published, which are sufficiently startling, and while supplying a missing link in the history of the locomotive, go far to show that much that has hitherto been held to be true is not true at all.

When the Liverpool and Manchester Railway was opened on the 15th of September, 1830, among those present was James Nasmyth, subsequently the inventor of the steam hammer. Mr. Nasmyth was a good freehand draughtsman, and he sketched the Rocket as it stood on the line. The sketch is still in existence. Mr. Nasmyth has placed this sketch at our disposal, thus earning the gratitude of our readers, and we have reproduced as nearly as possible, but to a somewhat enlarged scale, this invaluable link in the history of the locomotive. Mr. Nasmyth writes concerning it, July 26, 1884: "This slight and hasty sketch of the Rocket was made the day before the opening of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, September 12, 1830. I availed myself of the opportunity of a short pause in the experimental runs with the Rocket, of three or four miles between Liverpool and Rainhill, George Stephenson acting as engine driver and his son Robert as stoker. The limited time I had for making my sketch prevented me from making a more elaborate one, but such as it is, all the important and characteristic details are given; but the pencil lines, after the lapse of fifty-four years, have become somewhat indistinct." The pencil drawing, more than fifty years old, has become so faint that its reproduction has become a difficult task. Enough remains, however, to show very clearly what manner of engine this Rocket was. For the sake of comparison we reproduce an engraving of the Rocket of 1829. A glance will show that an astonishing transformation had taken place in the eleven months which had elapsed between the Rainhill trials and the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. We may indicate a few of the alterations. In 1829 the cylinders were set at a steep angle; in 1830 they were nearly horizontal. In 1829 the driving wheels were of wood; in 1830 they were of cast iron. In 1829 there was no smoke-box proper, and a towering chimney; in 1830 there was a smoke-box and a comparatively short chimney. In 1829 a cask and a truck constituted the tender; in 1830 there was a neatly designed tender, not very different in style from that still in use on the Great Western broad gauge. All these things may perhaps be termed concomitants, or changes in detail. But there is a radical difference yet to be considered. In 1829 the fire-box was a kind of separate chamber tacked on to the back of the barrel of the boiler, and communicating with it by three tubes; one on each side united the water spaces, and one at the top the steam spaces. In 1830 all this had disappeared, and we find in Mr. Nasmyth's sketch a regular fire-box, such as is used to this moment. In one word, the Rocket of 1829 is different from the Rocket of 1830 in almost every conceivable respect; and we are driven perforce to the conclusion that the Rocket of 1829 never worked at all on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway; the engine of 1830 was an entirely new engine. We see no possible way of escaping from this conclusion. The most that can be said against it is that the engine underwent many alterations. The alterations must, however, have been so numerous that they were tantamount to the construction of a new engine. It is difficult, indeed, to see what part of the old engine could exist in the new one; some plates of the boiler shell might, perhaps, have been retained, but we doubt it. It may, perhaps, disturb some hitherto well rooted beliefs to say so, but it seems to us indisputable that the Rocket of 1829 and 1830 were totally different engines.

FIG. 1. THE ROCKET, 1829. THE ROCKET, 1830.

Our engraving, Fig. 1, is copied from a drawing made by Mr. Phipps, M.I.C.E., who was employed by Messrs. Stephenson to compile a drawing of the Rocket from such drawings and documents as could be found. This gentleman had made the original drawings of the Rocket of 1829, under Messrs. G. & R. Stephenson's direction. Mr. Phipps is quite silent about the history of the engine during the eleven months between the Rainhill trials and the opening of the railway. In this respect he is like every one else. This period is a perfect blank. It is assumed that from Rainhill the engine went back to Messrs. Stephenson's works; but there is nothing on the subject in print, so far as we are aware. Mr. G.R. Stephenson lent us in 1880 a working model of the Rocket. An engraving of this will be found in The Engineer for September 17, 1880. The difference between it and the engraving below, prepared from Mr. Phipps' drawing, is, it will be seen, very small—one of proportions more than anything else. Mr. Stephenson says of his model: "I can say that it is a very fair representation of what the engine was before she was altered." Hitherto it has always been taken for granted that the alteration consisted mainly in reducing the angle at which the cylinders were set. The Nasmyth drawing alters the whole aspect of the question, and we are now left to speculate as to what became of the original Rocket. We are told that after "it" left the railway it was employed by Lord Dundonald to supply steam to a rotary engine; then it propelled a steamboat; next it drove small machinery in a shop in Manchester; then it was employed in a brickyard; eventually it was purchased as a curiosity by Mr. Thomson, of Kirkhouse, near Carlisle, who sent it to Messrs. Stephenson to take care of. With them it remained for years. Then Messrs. Stephenson put it into something like its original shape, and it went to South Kensington Museum, where "it" is now. The question is, What engine is this? Was it the Rocket of 1829 or the Rocket of 1830, or neither? It could not be the last, as will be understood from Mr. Nasmyth's drawing; if we bear in mind that the so-called fire-box on the South Kensington engine is only a sham made of thin sheet iron without water space, while the fire-box shown in Mr. Nasmyth's engine is an integral part of the whole, which could not have been cut off. That is to say, Messrs. Stephenson, in getting the engine put in order for the Patent Office Museum, certainly did not cut off the fire-box shown in Mr. Nasmyth's sketch, and replace it with the sham box now on the boiler. If our readers will turn to our impression for the 30th of June, 1876, they will find a very accurate engraving of the South Kensington engine, which they can compare with Mr. Nasmyth's sketch, and not fail to perceive that the differences are radical.

In "Wood on Railroads," second edition, 1832, page 377, we are told that "after those experiments"—the Rainhill trials—"were concluded, the Novelty underwent considerable alterations;" and on page 399, "Mr. Stephenson had also improved the working of the Rocket engine, and by applying the steam more powerfully in the chimney to increase the draught, was enabled to raise a much greater quantity of steam than before." Nothing is said as to where the new experiments took place, nor their precise date. But it seems that the Meteor and the Arrow—Stephenson engines—were tried at the same time; and this is really the only hint Wood gives as to what was done to the Rocket between the 6th of October, 1829, and the 15th of September, 1830.

There are men still alive who no doubt could clear up the question at issue, and it is much to be hoped that they will do so. As the matter now stands, it will be seen that we do not so much question that the Rocket in South Kensington Museum is, in part perhaps, the original Rocket of Rainhill celebrity, as that it ever ran in regular service on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Yet, if not, then we may ask, what became of the Rocket

of 1830? It is not at all improbable that the first Rocket was cast on one side, until it was bought by Lord Dundonald, and that its history is set out with fair accuracy above. But the Rocket of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway is hardly less worthy of attention than its immediate predecessor, and concerning it information is needed. Any scrap of information, however apparently trifling, that can be thrown on this subject by our readers will be highly valued, and given an appropriate place in our pages.—The Engineer.

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The largest grain elevator in the world, says the Nashville American, is that just constructed at Newport News under the auspices of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway Co. It is 90 ft. wide, 386 ft. long, and about 164 ft. high, with engine and boiler rooms 40 × 100 ft. and 40 ft. high. In its construction there were used about 3,000 piles, 100,000 ft. of white-oak timber, 82,000 cu. ft. of stone, 800,000 brick, 6,000,000 ft. of pine and spruce lumber, 4,500 kegs of nails, 6 large boilers, 2 large engines, 200 tons of machinery, 20 large hopper-scales, and 17,200 ft. of rubber belts, from 8 to 48 in. wide and 50 to 1,700 ft. long; in addition, there were 8,000 elevator buckets, and other material. The storage capacity is 1,600,000 bushels, with a receiving capacity of 30,000, and a shipping capacity of 20,000 bushels per hour.

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THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH TURBINES AND SCREW PROPELLERS.1

By Mr. ARTHUR RIGG, C.E.

Literature relating to turbines probably stands unrivaled among all that concerns questions of hydraulic engineering, not so much in its voluminous character as in the extent to which purely theoretical writers have ignored facts, or practical writers have relied upon empirical rules rather than upon any sound theory. In relation to this view, it may suffice to note that theoretical deductions have frequently been based upon a generalization that "streams of water must enter the buckets of a turbine without shock, and leave them without velocity." Both these assumed conditions are misleading, and it is now well known that in every good turbine both are carefully disobeyed. So-called practical writers, as a rule, fail to give much useful information, and their task seems rather in praise of one description of turbine above another. But generally, it is of no consequence whatever how a stream of water may be led through the buckets of any form of turbine, so long as its velocity gradually becomes reduced to the smallest amount that will carry it freely clear of the machine.

The character of theoretical information imparted by some Chicago Journal of Commerce, dated 20th February, 1884. There we are informed that "the height of the fall is one of the most important considerations, as the same stream of water will furnish five times the horse power at ten ft. that it will at five ft. fall." By general consent twice two are four, but it has been reserved for this imaginative writer to make the useful discovery that sometimes twice two are ten. Not until after the translation of Captain Morris' work on turbines by Mr. E. Morris in 1844, was attention in America directed to the advantages which these motors possessed over the gravity wheels then in use. A duty of 75 per cent. was then obtained, and a further study of the subject by a most acute and practical engineer, Mr. Boyden, led to various improvements upon Mr. Fauneyron's model, by which his experiments indicated the high duty of 88 per cent. The most conspicuous addition made by Mr. Boyden was the diffuser. The ingenious contrivance had the effect of transforming part of whatever velocity remained in the stream after passing out of a turbine into an atmospheric pressure, by which the corresponding lost head became effective, and added about 3 per cent. to the duty obtained. It may be worth noticing that, by an accidental application of these principles to some inward flow turbines, there is obtained most, if not all, of whatever advantage they are supposed to possess, but oddly enough this genuine advantage is never mentioned by any of the writers who are interested in their introduction or sale. The well-known experiments of Mr. James B. Francis in 1857, and his elaborate report, gave to hydraulic engineers a vast store of useful data, and since that period much progress has been made in the construction of turbines, and literature on the subject has become very complete.

In the limits of a short paper it is impossible to do justice to more than one aspect of the considerations relating to turbines, and it is now proposed to bring before the Mechanical Section of the British Association some conclusions drawn from the behavior of jets of water discharged under pressure, more particularly in the hope that, as water power is extremely abundant in Canada, any remarks relating to the subject may not fail to prove interesting.

Between the action of turbines and that of screw propellers exists an exact parallelism, although in one case water imparts motion to the buckets of a turbine, while in the other case blades of a screw give spiral movement to a column of water driven aft from the vessel it propels forward. Turbines have been driven sometimes by impact alone, sometimes by reaction above, though generally by a combination of impact and reaction, and it is by the last named system that the best results are now known to be obtained.

The ordinary paddles of a steamer impel a mass of water horizontally backward by impact alone, but screw propellers use reaction somewhat disguised, and only to a limited extent. The full use and advantages of reaction for screw propellers were not generally known until after the publication of papers by the present writer in the "Proceedings" of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1867 and 1868, and more fully in the "Transactions" of the Society of Engineers for 1868. Since that time, by the author of these investigations then described, by the English Admiralty, and by private firms, further experiments have been carried out, some on a considerable scale, and all corroborative of the results published in 1868. But nothing further has been done in utilizing these discoveries until the recent exigencies of modern naval warfare have led foreign nations to place a high value upon speed. Some makers of torpedo boats have thus been induced to slacken the trammels of an older theory and to apply a somewhat incomplete form of the author's reaction propeller for gaining some portion of the notable performance of these hornets of the deep. Just as in turbines a combination of impact and reaction produces the maximum practical result, so in screw propellers does a corresponding gain accompany the same construction.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

Turbines.—While studying those effects produced by jets of water impinging upon plain or concave surfaces corresponding to buckets of turbines, it simplifies matters to separate these results due to impact from others due to reaction. And it will be well at the outset to draw a distinction between the nature of these two pressures, and to remind ourselves of the laws which lie at the root and govern the whole question under present consideration. Water obeys the laws of gravity, exactly like every other body; and the velocity with which any quantity may be falling is an expression of the full amount of work it contains. By a sufficiently accurate practical rule this velocity is eight times the square root of the head or vertical column

measured in feet. Velocity per second = 8 sqrt (head in feet), therefore, for a head of 100 ft. as an example, V = 8 sqrt (100) = 80 ft. per second. The graphic method of showing velocities or pressures has many advantages, and is used in all the following diagrams. Beginning with purely theoretical considerations, we must first recollect that there is no such thing as absolute motion. All movements are relative to something else, and what we have to do with a stream of water in a turbine is to reduce its velocity relatively to the earth, quite a different thing to its velocity in relation to the turbine; for while the one may be zero, the other may be anything we please. ABCD in Fig. 1 represents a parallelogram of velocities, wherein AC gives the direction of a jet of water starting at A, and arriving at C at the end of one second or any other division of time. At a scale of 1/40 in. to 1 ft., AC represents 80 ft., the fall due to 100 ft. head, or at a scale of 1 in. to 1 ft., AC gives 2 ft., or the distance traveled by the same stream in 1/40 of a second. The velocity AC may be resolved into two others, namely, AB and AD, or BC, which are found to be 69.28 ft. and 40 ft. respectively, when the angle BAC—generally called x in treatises on turbines—is 30 deg. If, however, AC is taken at 2 ft., then A B will be found = 20.78 in., and BC = 12 in. for a time of 1/40 or 0.025 of a second. Supposing now a flat plate, BC = 12 in. wide move from DA to CB during 0.025 second, it will be readily seen that a drop of water starting from A will have arrived at C in 0.025 second, having been flowing along the surface BC from B to C without either friction or loss of velocity. If now, instead of a straight plate, BC, we substitute one having a concave surface, such as BK in Fig. 2, it will be found necessary to move it from A to L in 0.025 second, in order to allow a stream to arrive at C, that is K, without, in transit, friction or loss of velocity. This concave surface may represent one bucket of a turbine. Supposing now a resistance to be applied to that it can only move from A to B instead of to L. Then, as we have already resolved the velocity A C into AB and BC, so far as the former (AB) is concerned, no alteration occurs whether BK be straight or curved. But the other portion, BC, pressing vertically against the concave surface, BK, becomes gradually diminished in its velocity in relation to the earth, and produces and effect known as "reaction." A combined operation of impact and reaction occurs by further diminishing the distance which the bucket is allowed to travel, as, for examples, to EF. Here the jet is impelled against the lower edge of the bucket, B, and gives a pressure by its impact; then following the curve BK, with a diminishing velocity, it is finally discharged at K, retaining only sufficient movement to carry the water clear out of the machine. Thus far we have considered the movement of jets and buckets along AB as straight lines, but this can only occur, so far as buckets are concerned, when their radius in infinite. In practice these latter movements are always curves of more or less complicated form, which effect a considerable modification in the forms of buckets, etc., but not in the general principles, and it is the duty of the designer of any form of turbine to give this consideration its due importance. Having thus cleared away any ambiguity from the terms "impact," and "reaction," and shown how they can act independently or together, we shall be able to follow the course and behavior of streams in a turbine, and by treating their effects as arising from two separate causes, we shall be able to regard the problem without that inevitable confusion which arises when they are considered as acting conjointly. Turbines, though driven by vast volumes of water, are in reality impelled by countless isolated jets, or streams, all acting together, and a clear understanding of the behavior of any one of these facilitates and concludes a solution of the whole problem.

Experimental researches.—All experiments referred to in this paper were made by jets of water under an actual vertical head of 45 ft., but as the supply came through a considerable length of ½ in. bore lead piping, and many bends, a large and constant loss occurred through friction and bends, so that the actual working head was only known by measuring the velocity of discharge. This was easily done by allowing all the water to flow into a tank of known capacity. The stop cock had a clear circular passage through it, and two different jets were used. One oblong measured 0.5 in. by 0.15 in., giving an area of 0.075 square inch. The other jet was circular, and just so much larger than ¼ in. to be 0.05 of a square inch area, and the stream flowed with a velocity of 40 ft. per second, corresponding to a head of 25 ft. Either nozzle could be attached to the same universal joint, and directed at any desired inclination upon the horizontal surface of a special well-adjusted compound weighing machine, or into various bent tubes and other attachments, so that all pressures, whether vertical or horizontal, could be accurately ascertained and reduced to the unit, which was the quarter of an ounce. The vertical component p of any pressure P may be ascertained by the formula—

where alpha is the angle made by a jet against a surface; and in order to test the accuracy of the simple machinery employed for these researches, the oblong jet which gave 71 unit when impinging vertically upon a circular plate, was directed at 60 deg. and 45 deg. thereon, with results shown in Table I., and these, it will be observed, are sufficiently close to theory to warrant reliance being placed on data obtained from the simple weighing machinery used in the experiment.

In the first trial there was a distance of 1½ in. between the jet and point of its contact with the plate, while in the second trial this space was diminished to ½ in. It will be noticed that as this distance increases we have augmented pressures, and these are not due, as might be supposed, to increase of head, which is practically nothing, but they are due to the recoil of a portion of the stream, which occurs increasingly as it becomes more and more broken up. These alterations in pressure can only be eliminated

when care is taken to measure that only due to impact, without at the same time adding the effect of an imperfect reaction. Any stream that can run off at all points from a smooth surface gives the minimum of pressure thereon, for then the least resistance is offered to the destruction of the vertical element of its velocity, but this freedom becomes lost when a stream is diverted into a confined channel. As pressure is an indication and measure of lost velocity, we may then reasonably look for greater pressure on the scale when a stream is confined after impact than when it discharges freely in every direction. Experimentally this is shown to be the case, for when the same oblong jet, discharged under the same conditions, impinged vertically upon a smooth plate, and gave a pressure of 71 units, gave 87 units when discharged into a confined right-angled channel. This result emphasizes the necessity for confining streams of water whenever it is desired to receive the greatest pressure by arresting their velocity. Such streams will always endeavor to escape in the directions of least resistance, and, therefore, in a turbine means should be provided to prevent any lateral deviation of the streams while passing through their buckets. So with screw propellers the great mass of surrounding water may be regarded as acting like a channel with elastic sides, which permits the area enlarging as the velocity of a current passing diminishes. The experiments thus far described have been made with jets of an oblong shape, and they give results differing in some degree from those obtained with circular jets. Yet as the general conclusions from both are found the same, it will avoid unnecessary prolixity by using the data from experiments made with a circular jet of 0.05 square inch area, discharging a stream at the rate of 40 ft. per second. This amounts to 52 lb. of water per minute with an available head of 25 ft., or 1,300 foot-pounds per minute. The tubes which received and directed the course of this jet were generally of lead, having a perfectly smooth internal surface, for it was found that with a rougher surface the flow of water is retarded, and changes occur in the data obtained. Any stream having its course changed presses against the body causing such change, this pressure increasing in proportion to the angle through which the change is made, and also according to the radius of a curve around which it flows. This fact has long been known to hydraulic engineers, and formulæ exist by which such pressures can be determined; nevertheless, it will be useful to study these relations from a somewhat different point of view than has been hitherto adopted, more particularly as they bear upon the construction of screw propellers and turbines; and by directing the stream, AB, Fig. 3, vertically into a tube 3/8 in. internal diameter and bent so as to turn the jet horizontally, and placing the whole arrangement upon a compound weighing machine, it is easy to ascertain the downward pressure, AB, due to impact, and the horizontal pressures, CB, due to reaction. In theoretical investigations it may be convenient to assume both these pressures exactly equal, and this has been done in the paper "On Screw Propellers" already referred to; but this brings in an error of no importance so far as general principles are involved, but one which destroys much of the value such researches might, otherwise possess for those who are engaged in the practical construction of screw propellers or turbines. The downward impact pressure, AB, is always somewhat greater than the horizontal reaction, BC, and any proportions between these two can only be accurately ascertained by trials. In these particular experiments the jet of water flowed 40 ft. per second through an orifice of 0.05 square inch area, and in every case its course was bent to a right angle. The pressures for impact and reaction were weighed coincidently, with results given by columns 1 and 2, Table II.

FIG. 3

FIG. 4

The third column is obtained by constructing a parallelogram of forces, where impact and reaction form the measures of opposing sides, and it furnishes the resultant due to both forces. The fourth column gives the inclination ABS, at which the line of impact must incline toward a plane surface RS, Fig. 3, so as to produce this maximum resultant perpendicularly upon it; as the resultant given in column 3 indicates the full practical effect of impact and reaction. When a stream has its direction changed to one at right angles to its original course, and as such a changed direction is all that can be hoped for by ordinary screw propellers, the figures in column 3 should bear some relationship to such cases. Therefore, it becomes an inquiry of some interest as to what angle of impact has been found best in those screw propellers which have given the best results in practical work. Taking one of the most improved propellers made by the late Mr. Robert Griffiths, its blades do not conform to the lines of a true screw, but it is an oblique paddle, where the acting portions of its blades were set at 48 deg. to the keel of the ship or 42 deg. to the plane of rotation. Again, taking a screw tug boat on the river Thames, with blades of a totally different form to those used by Mr. Griffiths, we still find them set at the same angle, namely, 48 deg. to the keel or 42 deg. to the plane of rotation. An examination of other screws tends only to confirm these figures, and they justify the conclusion that the inclinations of blades found out by practice ought to be arrived at, or at any rate approached, by any sound and reliable theory; and that blades of whatever form must not transgress far from this inclination if they are to develop any considerable efficiency. Indeed, many favorable results obtained by propellers are not due to their peculiarities, but only to the fact that they have been made with an inclination of blade not far from 42 deg. to the plan of rotation. Referring to column 4, and accepting the case of water flowing through a smooth tube as analogous to that of a current flowing within a large body of water, it appears that the inclination necessary to give the highest resultant pressure is an angle of 49

deg., and this corresponds closely enough with the angle which practical constructors of screw propellers have found to give the best results. Until, therefore, we can deal with currents after they have been discharged from the blades of a propeller, it seems unlikely that anything can be done by alterations in the pitch of a propeller. So far as concerns theory, the older turbines were restricted to such imperfect results of impact and reaction as might be obtained by turning a stream at right angles to its original course; and the more scientific of modern turbine constructors may fairly claim credit for an innovation by which practice gave better results than theory seemed to warrant; and the consideration of this aspect of the question will form the concluding subject of the present paper. Referring again to Fig. 3, when a current passes round such a curve as the quadrant of a circle, its horizontal reaction appears as a pressure along c B, which is the result of the natural integration of all the horizontal components of pressures, all of which act perpendicularly to each element of the concave surface along which the current flows. If, now, we add another quadrant of a circle to the curve, and so turn the stream through two right angles, or 180 deg., as shown by Fig. 4, then such a complete reversal of the original direction represents the carrying of it back again to the highest point; it means the entire destruction of its velocity, and it gives the maximum pressure obtainable from a jet of water impinging upon a surface of any form whatsoever. The reaction noticed in Fig. 3 as acting along c B is now confronted by an impact of the now horizontal stream as it is turned round the second 90 deg. of curvature, and reacts also vertically downward. It would almost seem as if the first reaction from B to F should be exactly neutralized by the second impact from F to D. But such is not the case, as experiment shows an excess of the second impact over the first reaction amounting to six units, and shows also that the behavior of the stream through its second quadrant is precisely similar in kind to the first, only less in degree. Also the impact takes place vertically in one case and horizontally in the other. The total downward pressure given by the stream when turned 180 deg. is found by experiment thus: Total impact and reaction from 180 deg. change in direction of current = 132 units; and by deducting the impact 71 units, as previously measured, the new reaction corresponds with an increase of 61 units above the first impact. It also shows an increase of 37.75 units above the greatest resultant obtained by the same stream turned through 90 deg. only. Therefore, in designing a screw propeller or turbine, it would seem from these experiments desirable to aim at changing the direction of the stream, so far as possible, into one at 180 deg. to its original course, and it is by carrying out this view, so far as the necessities of construction will permit, that the scientifically designed modern turbine has attained to that prominence which it holds at present over all hydraulic motors. Much more might be written to extend and amplify the conclusions that can be drawn from the experiments described in the present paper, and from many others made by the writer, but the exigencies of time and your patience alike preclude further consideration of this interesting and important subject.

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