liberty—political, religious, economic; (b) that which reveals the development of democratic institutions; (c) that which reveals the growth of altruism or the humanitarian spirit; (d) that which reveals the development of commerce, industry, and finance; (e) that which reveals the development of thought and the institutions that aim to develop and train it; or (f) that which reveals the development of social relations and activities?

VIII. Elements of History.

1. Time Element: The when, or chronology.

(a) Units of measurement: day, month, year, decade, century, administration, sovereignty, ministry, epoch, era, and the unit determined by the movement of the events themselves as they naturally cohere.

(b) Dates as agencies for assigning definite position in time.

2. Place Element: The where, or geography.

(a) Units of location: continent, nation, empire, kingdom, state, section, region, district, town, city, county, and the geographical groups or centers formed by the events themselves as they cohere.

3. Physical Element:

(a) Climate and meteorology affecting

(1) Character of the people.

(2) Occupations.

(b) Topography, affecting

(1) Movement of races, armies, productions, etc.

(2) Size and boundaries of states.

(3) Location and character of cities.

(4) Industries.

(5) Trade and transportation.

(c) Natural resources, soil, and products, affecting

(1) Livelihood.

(2) Character of people.

(d) Violent and infrequent phenomena of nature, earthquakes, storms, eclipses, comets, volcanic eruptions, etc., affecting

(1) Beliefs and actions of people.

4. Human Element.

(a) The national or race spirit.

(b) The religious emotions and aspirations.

(c) The sentimental interests.

(d) The Zeitgeist or spirit of the age.

(e) The genius of individuals.

5. Superhuman Element.

(a) The moral order in the universe, or the seeming law that rules thoughts, feelings, and actions of men—the law of cause and effect.

Queries

 1. Which time-units are most commonly used in the classes you have observed? Do you approve of the custom?

 2. What advantage is gained from the use of such units over what is gained in using other units?

 3. Are there any of the units mentioned that ought to be used sparingly, if at all?

 4. Does the teacher observed stress dates sufficiently? Does she over-stress them?

 5. Under what circumstances should a date be learned?

 6. What is the best method of getting pupils to remember dates?

 7. How many dates ought to be required in any course in history in the high school?

 8. What principle of selection ought to guide in the choice?

 9. Is it wise to require the learning of some dates for the recitation period only with the expectation that they shall then fade from the mind?

10. Is it wise to drill on dates frequently?

11. What is the value of memorized dates?

12. What would be your views respecting the following list of dates (learned in their full significance) as the only fixed required dates for the entire high school course: b.c. 1000; 776; 594; 500; 459; 323; 264; 146; 59; 31; a.d. 313; 395; 476; 527; 622; 732; 800; 843; 962; 1066; 1095; 1215; 1400; 1453; 1492; 1517; 1588; 1598; 1603; 1609; 1620; 1648; 1688; 1776; 1789: 1815; 1830; 1848; 1861; 1867; 1871; 1898.

13. Does the teacher always seek to connect historical events with geography?

14. Is such connection real or merely verbal?

15. What methods are used to bring about this permanent association of event and place in the minds of the pupils?

16. What "unit of location" is chiefly used? Is this wise?

17. What is the real importance of stressing geography while studying history?

18. Are students expected to make use of outline maps?

19. How many such maps does each student make during the semester?

20. Are the maps made during given recitation periods under the supervision of the teacher, or at the convenience of the students? Which is the better plan?

21. Do the students devote much time to map-making?

22. Do they merely "color" the map, or do they fill in all important geographical and historical items?

23. Are maps ever drawn, roughly, on the blackboards by either teacher or pupils? If so, is there decided merit in so doing?

24. Are wall maps used frequently? If so, who indicates locations—teacher or pupils?

25. Is it advisable to conduct the class in person to near-by historic places?

26. Would it be wise to employ analogously formed geographical territory that is familiar to the students to vivify and interpret far-distant historical places?

27. Does the teacher seek to impress the importance of "physical elements" in shaping history?

28. Does the teacher emphasize this element of history sufficiently?

29. How, in detail, can such influences be revealed to high school students so that their real significance can be recognized?

30. Is the significance of national or race spirit in producing history sufficiently emphasized by the teacher?

31. Can you give an illustration of its notable operation?

32. Has the influence of religious emotions and aspirations been shown by the teacher in its full significance?

33. Can you give an illustration of the complete modification of history because of "sentimental interests"?

34. Are such modifications somewhat common and important?

35. Does the teacher impress this fact upon his pupils?

36. Does the teacher make clear the significance of the Zeitgeist, or spirit of the age, in shaping history?

37. How much attention is given to the study of notable characters in history?

38. Ought biography to occupy a more important place in the high school course in history?

39. How is such study secured in the school you have observed,—through collateral readings by the class, individual reports, or incidental classroom discussions?

40. Does the teacher sufficiently stress the fact that all history is but the operation of cause and effect?

41. Are students required to seek for causes back of the events?

42. Are students encouraged and expected to trace causes through the various sequences of effects?

IX. Methods of Approach to the Study of History.

1. Chronologically, since there is a continuity in the subject, and cause precedes effect. "The childhood of history is best for the child, the boyhood of history for the boy, the youthhood of history for the youth, and the manhood of history for the