evolution……………………………..245 12 Pralaya and the disturbance of the Prak@rti Equilibrium…….247 13 Mahat and Ahamkâra……………………………………..248 14 The Tanmâtras and the Paramâñus………………………….251 15 Principle of Causation and Conservation of Energy………….254 16 Change as the formation of new collocations……………….255 17 Causation as Satkâryavâda (the theory that the effect potentially exists before it is generated by the movement of the cause)……………………………………………257 18 Sâ@mkhya Atheism and Yoga Theism…………………………258 19 Buddhi and Purusa………………………………………259 20 The Cognitive Process and some characteristics of Citta…….261 21 Sorrow and its Dissolution………………………………264 22 Citta…………………………………………………268 23 Yoga Purificatory Practices (Parikarma)…………………..270 24 The Yoga Meditation…………………………………….271

CHAPTER VIII

THE NYÂYA-VAISESIKA PHILOSOPHY

1 Criticism of Buddhism and Sâ@mkhya from the Nyâya standpoint…274 2 Nyâya and Vais'e@sika sûtras……………………………..276 3 Does Vais'e@sika represent an old school of Mîmâ@msâ?……….280 4 Philosophy in the Vais'e@sika sûtras………………………285 5 Philosophy in the Nyâya sûtras……………………………294 6 Philosophy of Nyâya sûtras and Vais'e@sika sûtras…………..301 7 The Vais'e@sika and Nyâya Literature………………………305 8 The main doctrine of the Nyâya-Vais'e@sika Philosophy……….310 9 The six Padârthas: Dravya, Gu@na, Karma, Sâmânya, Vis'e@sa, Samavâya………………………………………………..313 10 The Theory of Causation…………………………………319 11 Dissolution (Pralaya) and Creation (S@r@s@ti)……………..323 12 Proof of the Existence of Is'vara………………………..325 13 The Nyâya-Vais'e@sika Physics……………………………326 14 The Origin of Knowledge (Pramâ@na)……………………….330 15 The four Pramâ@nas of Nyâya……………………………..332 16 Perception (Pratyak@sa)…………………………………333 17 Inference……………………………………………..343 18 Upamâna and S'abda……………………………………..354 19 Negation in Nyâya-Vais'e@sika……………………………355 20 The necessity of the Acquirement of debating devices for the seeker of Salvation…………………………………..360 21 The Doctrine of Soul……………………………………362 22 Îs'vara and Salvation…………………………………..363

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CHAPTER IX

MÎMÂ@MSÂ PHILOSOPHY

1 A Comparative Review…………………………………….367 2 The Mîmâ@msâ Literature………………………………….369 3 The Parata@h-prâmâ@nya doctrine of Nyâya and the Svata@h-prâmâ@nya doctrine of Mîmâ@msâ……………………..372 4 The place of Sense-organs in Perception……………………375 5 Indeterminate and Determinate Perception…………………..378 6 Some Ontological Problems connected with the Doctrine of Perception………………………………………………379 7 The Nature of Knowledge………………………………….382 8 The Psychology of Illusion……………………………….384 9 Inference………………………………………………387 10 Upamâna, Arthâpatti…………………………………….391 11 S'abda-pramâ@na………………………………………..394 12 The Pramâ@na of Non-perception (anupalabdhi)………………397 13 Self, Salvation, and God………………………………..399 14 Mîmâ@msâ as Philosophy and Mimâ@msâ as Ritualism…………..403

CHAPTER X

THE S'A@NKARA SCHOOL OF VEDÂNTA

1 Comprehension of the Philosophical Issues more essential than the Dialectic of Controversy………………………………406 2 The philosophical situation: a Review……………………..408 3 Vedânta Literature………………………………………418 4 Vedânta in Gau@dapâda……………………………………420 5 Vedânta and Sa@nkara (788-820 A.D.)……………………….429 6 The main idea of the Vedânta philosophy……………………439 7 In what sense is the world-appearance false?……………….443 8 The nature of the world-appearance, phenomena………………445 9 The Definition of Ajñâna (nescience)………………………452 10 Ajñâna established by Perception and Inference…………….454 11 Locus and Object of Ajñâna, Aha@mkâra and Anta@hkara@na…….457 12 Anirvâcyavâda and the Vedânta dialectic…………………..461 13 The Theory of Causation…………………………………465 14 Vedânta theory of Perception and Inference………………..470 15 Âtman, Jîva, Is'vara, Ekajîvavâda and D@r@s@tis@r@s@tivâda….474 16 Vedânta theory of Illusion………………………………485 17 Vedânta Ethics and Vedânta Emancipation…………………..489 18 Vedânta and other Indian systems…………………………492

INDEX……………………………………………………495

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

The achievements of the ancient Indians in the field of philosophy are but very imperfectly known to the world at large, and it is unfortunate that the condition is no better even in India. There is a small body of Hindu scholars and ascetics living a retired life in solitude, who are well acquainted with the subject, but they do not know English and are not used to modern ways of thinking, and the idea that they ought to write books in vernaculars in order to popularize the subject does not appeal to them. Through the activity of various learned bodies and private individuals both in Europe and in India large numbers of philosophical works in Sanskrit and Pâli have been published, as well as translations of a few of them, but there has been as yet little systematic attempt on the part of scholars to study them and judge their value. There are hundreds of Sanskrit works on most of the systems of Indian thought and scarcely a hundredth part of them has been translated. Indian modes of expression, entailing difficult technical philosophical terms are so different from those of European thought, that they can hardly ever be accurately translated. It is therefore very difficult for a person unacquainted with Sanskrit to understand Indian philosophical thought in its true bearing from translations. Pâli is a much easier language than Sanskrit, but a knowledge of Pâli is helpful in understanding only the earliest school of Buddhism, when it was in its semi-philosophical stage. Sanskrit is generally regarded as a difficult language. But no one from an acquaintance with Vedic or ordinary literary Sanskrit can have any idea of the difficulty of the logical and abstruse parts of Sanskrit philosophical literature. A man who can easily understand the Vedas. the Upani@sads, the Purânas, the Law Books and the literary works, and is also well acquainted with European philosophical thought, may find it literally impossible to understand even small portions of a work of advanced Indian logic, or the dialectical Vedânta. This is due to two reasons, the use of technical terms and of great condensation in expression, and the hidden allusions to doctrines of other systems. The

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tendency to conceiving philosophical problems in a clear and