using archaic-sounding words as much as possible, although I preferred words that would be familiar to educated native-speakers of contemporary English, rather than genuinely archaic words. I also employed devices such as inversion of the word order (e.g., "a hero bold") or using adjectives in the place of adverbs (e.g., "the sun set slow"). However, I avoided forms that no longer exist, such as "thou," "thy," or "doth" and the like: I believe that these now sound too artificial to modern readers' ears.

Despite the liberties just described, the organization of the work follows Pumpurs's original division into six cantos of widely differing lengths. However, as aids to following the story I have given the cantos titles, divided them into "scenes", each scene beginning on a new page, and inserted intermediate headings. The scenes and headings are entirely my own invention and, to make it clear that they do not come from Pumpurs, I have put my headings into italics.

Pumpurs used various stanza structures, ranging from four lines to passages of 250 or more lines without interruption. Where Pumpurs used four-, six- or eight-line stanzas, I have done the same. Later, where Pumpurs used very long stanzas, I have returned to an eight-line or four-line format, largely depending on the number of syllables in a line. I have also sometimes inserted four-line stanzas into sections otherwise consisting of eight-line stanzas, in order to mark a turning point in the action.

Pumpurs also used differing metrical forms, the number of syllables in a line ranging from six to eighteen. In my translation I have used the iambus as the basic metrical unit throughout the entire poem. The most common metrical form in my translation is iambic pentameter. However, where Pumpurs used eight-syllable lines I have done the same. In such cases I have also often switched to four-line stanzas, in order to increase the "staccato" effect of the shorter lines. The original Latvian is largely unrhymed. I have translated into rhyming verse, mainly using the rhyme scheme a, b, a, b, c, d, c, d. In the six-line stanzas the rhyme scheme is a, b, a, b, a, b; in the four-line stanzas a, b, a, b.

LATVIAN PROPER NOUNS

With few exceptions, most noticeably Bearslayer's name (Latvian: Lacplesis) and those of the Black Knight (Latvian: Tumais bruninieks) and the Father of Destiny (Latvian: Liktena tevs), I have not translated personal and place names, such as "Perkons" or "Kegums", but have maintained the Latvian spelling. Thus, Laimdota remains Laimdota, not "Laima's Gift", and Koknesis is not translated into "Tree Bearer" or "Wood Carrier". This is because the original Latvian names have a heroic ring about them, whereas English translations run the risk of sounding ridiculous. Since the Latvian gods and spirits will be unfamiliar to most English speakers I have often inserted into the poem explanations of who they are (e.g., "The God of Thunder, Perkons").

NOTES ON PRONUNCIATION

The poem, as I have translated it, is meant to be read aloud, although this is not essential. Because of the strict iambic metre of the translation, every second syllable must be stressed. In most places I have found English words for which this is compatible with everyday pronunciation, at least in the Australian dialect that I speak. However, it raises some problems for the pronunciation of Latvian geographical and personal names. In this poem, all such words start with a stressed syllable, as is usual in spoken Latvian. However, stressing every second syllable may offend against some readers' understanding of correct Latvian usage, I ask for forgiveness in advance. The work is, however, a poem in the English language, and the pronunciation suggested here and in the Glossary is essential for preserving the iambic metre of the English poetry.

The notes on pronunciation that follow are solely for the purposes of reading this poem, and are not meant as a general guide to pronunciation of the Latvian language. The syllable represented phonetically as "-a" should be pronounced as in "bad",and "-ah" as a very long "bad". The syllable represented as "-e" should be pronounced as in "bed", "-o" as in "hot", "-oh" as in "throw", "oo" as in "zoo", "ow" as in "bough", "-u" as in "hut" and "uh" as in "book". Syllables in boldface should be stressed.

(a) All untranslated proper nouns, such as personal or place names, start with a stressed syllable (e.g., Liga = Lee-gu). Where a name has more than two syllables, the first and third are stressed in order to maintain the iambic metre (e.g., Spidala = Spee-du-lu).

(b) The letter "o" is a diphthong ("oo-oh" or "oh-u"). However, as a rule I have adopted a shortened diphthong, to avoid giving the single letter "o" two syllables. Thus, it is usually pronounced "wo". For example, the name of the Messenger of the Gods, "Vaidelots", is pronounced "Vy-du-lwots", "Perkons" is pronounced "Pah-kwons", and so on. Despite what has just been said, Laimdota is pronounced "Laim-dwo-tu", and "Koknesis" is pronounced "Kwok-ness-is", whereas Spidala is always pronounced "Spee-du-lu".

(c) The letter combination "ie" is also a diphthong, and is pronounced "ee e". Thus, the letters "liel" (as in "Lielvarde") are pronounced "Lee-ell".

(d) A final "e" is pronounced. Thus, for instance, "Lielvarde" is pronounced "Lee-ell-var-de".

(e) Although it does not involve pronouncing Latvian words, "Latvia" is prononced "Lat'vya", "Latvian(s)" "Lat'vyan(s)", and "Destiny" Dest'ny". Many three-syllable words are pronounced similarly: e.g., "Daug'va" "trav'ler", etc.

GLOSSARY

To assist readers who are not familiar with Latvian geography and mythology, I have prepared a brief glossary of names and places (see p. 164). This includes guidance on how to pronounce the names for the purposes of the present work.

SUMMARY

It is the turn of the 13th century, 800 years ago in Latvia. The Baltic gods have gathered to consult the Father of Destiny about their own fate and that of the Latvian people. Both are under threat from invading German knights, who have been sent by the Pope to christianize the Baltic region, under the command of Bishop Albert. Perkons, the God of Thunder, calls on all the gods to guard and nurture the Latvians, and they promise to do so, each in his or her own way.

As the council is breaking up the Goddess Staburadze reveals that she has rescued a young man from the River Daugava, where he was cast down by two witches. She has taken him to her Crystal Palace beneath the river in the whirlpool of Staburags, from which no human can emerge alive. Perkons reveals that this youth is Bearslayer, who will become a noble warrior under the protection of Perkons, and will strive mightily against the forces of evil.

At the beginning of Canto II the action goes back in time to the Castle of Lielvarde, shortly before the Council of the Gods described in the previous canto. The son of the Lord of Lielvarde reveals mighty strength, killing a bear with his bare hands. This first heroic deed wins him the name "Bearslayer." (This young man is the hero that Perkons revealed to the other gods in Canto I.) The youth is not the true son of the Lord of Lielvarde, but a foundling suckled by a female bear in the forest. (Although it is not directly explained until almost the end of the poem, it is important to know that Bearslayer has bear's ears, and that if these are cut off he will lose his bearlike strength.) Bearslayer was brought to Lielvarde as a baby by Vaidelots, a Messenger of the Gods, to be raised until he reached manhood. After killing the bear he is sent to study for seven years in the Castle of Burtnieks, in