into the paunch of the reindeer, well cleaned from filth; thus the milk soon congeals, and it is cut out in slices, together with the paunch, to effect which a hatchet is used, for no smaller instrument would perform the office of dividing that lump of ice. It is then separated into small pieces and eaten throughout the winter every day at noon, which is the Laplander's dinner-hour. It must be presumed, as it is served up without being brought to the fire, that this is ice-cream in the greatest perfection: here are flesh and fruit blended with the richest butyraceous milk that can be drawn from any animal; but, notwithstanding the extraordinary fatness, which may be supposed to resist in a great degree the effect of cold, this preparation, as our good missionary remarks with a degree of feeling, as if his teeth still chattered whilst he delivered the account, chills and freezes the mouth in a violent manner whenever it is taken. The milk which is drawn late in the winter freezes immediately after being drawn. This is put into small vessels made of birchwood, and is considered by the Laplander as such an extraordinary delicacy, that he reserves it as the most acceptable present he can offer even a missionary. It is placed before the fire and eaten with a spoon as it is thawed. When put by, it is carefully covered up, because if the cold air gets to it afterwards, it turns of a yellow colour and becomes rancid."

Amongst the peasants at the present day, soured milk is known as yoghourt, a word which is spelt differently according to the locality in which it is used. The method of preparation is practically the same everywhere, and a short description of the process as now carried out in one place would, with slight modifications, apply to the general method adopted all over the East.

"The culture," says a correspondent at Varna, "which is used for the preparation of yogourt, is known as 'Maya' or as 'Bulgarian Maya.' The milk which is to be converted into yogourt must first be freed from all bacteria by boiling and allowed to cool to the temperature of 45° C.; it is then inoculated with maya and maintained at an even temperature of 45° C. during several hours. There are two kinds of maya, or ferment, one known as sour, and the other as sweet maya.

"In Europe small stoves, made expressly for the purpose, are used to maintain the milk at the proper temperature. In this country, however, after the milk has been boiled, it is merely poured into a bowl and allowed to cool to approximately 45° C., then a tablespoonful of this tepid milk is well mixed (in a small bowl apart) with a similar quantity of maya, and the mixture, when it has become quite homogeneous, is added to the bowl of tepid milk and stirred slightly. (One tablespoonful of maya is sufficient to ferment one litre of milk.) A cover is then placed on the bowl and the whole is enveloped in flannel and left in a warm place for three hours in summer, and somewhat longer in winter.

"The process of preparation is complete when the mixture assumes the appearance of a soft mass somewhat resembling cream cheese, but less solid. The flannel is then removed, the bowl uncovered and placed in a cool spot until needed for consumption. Of the yogourt thus prepared, a tablespoonful is kept to serve as maya for the following day.

"The best yogourt is prepared from sheep's milk, the second quality from buffaloes' milk, and the third quality from cows' milk. Yogourt forms an almost daily article of diet with the natives in this country."12

With regard to the time stated for the fermenting process, it must be noted that since the subject has been investigated so thoroughly, the time required for fermentation has been found to be nearer ten than three hours, but this will be dealt with in a subsequent chapter.

Historically it may be gleaned from the fragmentary references which we have given, that soured milk has, from time immemorial, formed the principal article of diet of a great many peoples, and the notable feature in connection with it is, that in some countries where it is in daily use, the age limit for human beings seems to be very much extended, and it would appear that there is a direct connection between the use of soured milk and longevity. In Bulgaria, for example, it is stated that the majority of the natives live to an age considerably in excess of what is recognised as the term of life amongst Western nations, and inquiry has shown that in the eastern part of Southern Europe, amongst a population of about three millions, there were more than three thousand centenarians found performing duties which would not be assigned to a man of sixty-five years of age elsewhere. It is quite common to find amongst the peasants who live to such a large extent upon soured milk, individuals of 110 and 120 years of age.13

In the ancient dairy practice, as we have seen, soured milk was the principal product, and the extraordinary ages which are recorded of the patriarchs, if translated into the modern denomination, would not appear to be so imaginary after all, when it is considered that we have thousands of examples at the present day of men and women enjoying quite as long a term of existence. It has been noticed also, that while these very old people are able to perform a certain amount of manual labour, there is not the same tendency to the mental decay which is so prominent and sad a feature amongst Western nations, at a period of about seventy or eighty years of age. It would seem, indeed, as if the habit of living long was well known in ancient times, and that, like many other of the valuable arts and sciences, it fell under a cloud during the Middle Ages, or, perhaps, the significance of the use of soured milk fell into neglect, and, even after the revival of letters in the sixteenth century, still remained obscure.

The discovery of micro-organisms in perishable products, which is attributable to Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutchman, whose vocation was the polishing of lenses, and who lived between 1632 and 1723, altered our point of view, not only of disease, but of all the functions carried on by the lower organisms. Since Van Leeuwenhoek's time, the germ theory has grown to vast proportions and has more especially been applied with splendid results to the study of milk. As we shall see later, the researches of modern investigators have led them to the conclusion that micro-organisms play such an important part in the milk supply, that it is impossible to carry it on safely without a knowledge of the bacteriology of the subject. This view began to prevail about 1890, some twenty years after Pasteur had shown what fermentation really meant. Since that time, the progress in dairying has been continuous, and, during recent years, attention has been directed to soured milk to such an extent that it has become necessary for all who are interested in the handling of milk and milk products to have a knowledge of the subject, as it seems clearly demonstrated that, under proper direction, there is every possibility of its forming an important element in the prolongation of life.

CHAPTER II

FERMENTED MILKS

There is considerable variety in the number of soured or fermented milks, and they are known by various names, such as Koumiss