centre of which disc an iron tube, about 6 inches diameter, proceeds and enters, at a right angle, the main tube of refrigeration. The diameter of this tube may be from 9 to 14 inches, according to the number of cylinders. The other end of the cylinder is called the mouth of the retort; this is closed by a disc of iron, smeared round its edge by clay lute, and secured in its place by fir wedges. The charge of wood for such a cylinder is about 8 cwt. The hard woods—oak, ash, birch, and beech—are alone used; fir does not answer. The heat is kept up during the day-time, and the furnace is allowed to cool during the night. Next morning, the door is opened, the charcoal removed, and a new charge of wood is introduced. The average product of crude vinegar called pyrolignous acid, is 35 gallons. It is much contaminated with tar, is of a deep brown colour, and has a sp. gr. of 1·025. Its total weight is therefore about 300 lbs., but the residuary charcoal is found to weigh no more than one fifth of the wood employed; hence nearly one half of the ponderable matter of the wood is dissipated in incondensable gases. Count Rumford states, that the charcoal is equal in weight to more than four tenths of the wood from which it is made. The count’s error seems to have arisen from the slight heat of an oven to which his wood was exposed in a glass cylinder. The result now given, is the experience of an eminent manufacturing chemist.

The crude pyrolignous acid is rectified by a second distillation in a copper still, in the body of which about 20 gallons of viscid tarry matter are left from every 100. It has now become a transparent brown vinegar, having a considerably empyreumatic smell, and a sp. gr. of 1·013. Its acid powers are superior to those of the best household vinegar, in the proportion of three to two. By redistillation, saturation with quicklime, evaporation of the liquid acetate to dryness, and conversion into acetate of soda by sulphate of soda, the empyreumatic matter is so completely dissipated, that on decomposing the pure acetate of soda by sulphuric acid, a perfectly colourless and grateful vinegar rises in distillation. Its strength will be proportionable to the concentration of the decomposing acid.

The acetic acid of the chemist may be prepared also in the following modes:—1. Two parts of fused acetate of potash, with one of the strongest oil of vitriol, yield, by slow distillation from a glass retort into a refrigerated receiver, concentrated acetic acid. A small portion of sulphurous acid, which contaminates it, may be removed by redistillation from a little acetate of lead. 2. Or four parts of good sugar of lead, with one part of sulphuric acid, treated in the same way, afford a slightly weaker acetic acid. 3. Gently calcined sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, mixed with sugar of lead, in the proportion of 1 of the former to 2¹⁄₂ of the latter, or with acetate of copper, and carefully distilled from a porcelain retort into a cool receiver, may be also considered an economical process. But that with binacetate of copper above described, is preferable to any of these.

The manufacture of pyrolignous acid is conducted in the following way in France. Into large cylindrical vessels (fig. 3.) made of rivetted sheet iron, and having at their top and side a small sheet iron cylinder, the wood intended for making charcoal is introduced. To the upper part of this vessel a cover of sheet iron, B, is adapted, which is fixed with bolts. This vessel, thus closed, represents, as we see, a vast retort. When it is prepared, as we have said, it is lifted by means of a swing crane, C, and placed in a furnace, D, (fig. 4.) of a form relative to that of the vessel, and the opening of the furnace is covered with a dome, E, made of masonry or brickwork. The whole being thus arranged, heat is applied in the furnace at the bottom. The moisture of the wood is first dissipated, but by degrees the liquor ceases to be transparent, and becomes sooty. An adopter tube, A, is then fitted to the lateral cylinder. This adopter enters into another tube at the same degree of inclination which commences the condensing apparatus. The means of condensation vary according to the localities. In certain works they cool by means of air, by making the vapour pass through a long series of cylinders, or sometimes, even, through a series of casks connected together; but most usually water is used for condensing, when it can be easily procured in abundance. The most simple apparatus employed for this purpose consists of two cylinders, F, F, (fig. 4.) the one within the other, and which leave between them a sufficient space to allow a considerable body of water to circulate along and cool the vapours. This double cylinder is adapted to the distilling vessel, and placed at a certain inclination. To the first double tube, F, F, a second, and sometimes a third, entirely similar, are connected, which, to save space, return upon themselves in a zigzag fashion. The water is set in circulation by an ingenious means now adopted in many different manufactories. From the lower extremity, G, of the system of condensers, a perpendicular tube rises, whose length should be a little more than the most elevated point of the system. The water, furnished by a reservoir, L, enters by means of the perpendicular tube through the lower part of the system, and fills the whole space between the double cylinders. When the apparatus is in action, the vapours, as they condense, raise the temperature of the water, which, by the column in L G, is pressed to the upper part of the cylinders, and runs over by the spout K. To this point a very short tube is attached, which is bent towards the ground, and serves as an overflow.

The condensing apparatus is terminated by a conduit in bricks covered and sunk in the ground. At the extremity of this species of gutter is a bent tube, E, which discharges the liquid product into the first cistern. When it is full, it empties itself, by means of an overflow pipe, into a great reservoir; the tube which terminates the gutter plunges into the liquid, and thus intercepts communication with the inside of the apparatus. The disengaged gas is brought back by means of pipes M L, from one of the sides of the conduit to the under part of the ash pit of the furnace. These pipes are furnished with stopcocks M, at some distance in front of the furnace, for the purpose of regulating the jet of the gas, and interrupting, at pleasure, communication with the inside of the apparatus. The part of the pipes which terminates in the furnace rises perpendicularly several inches above the ground, and is expanded like the rose of a watering can, N. The gas, by means of this disposition, can distribute itself uniformly under the vessel, without suffering the pipe which conducts it to be obstructed by the fuel or the ashes.

The temperature necessary to effect the carbonisation is not considerable: however, at the last it is raised so high as to make the vessels red hot; and the duration of the process is necessarily proportional to the quantity of wood carbonised. For a vessel which shall contain about 5 meters cube (nearly 6 cubic yds.), 8 hours of fire is sufficient. It is known that the carbonisation is complete by the colour of the flame of the gas: it is first of a yellowish red; it becomes afterwards blue, when more carbonic oxide than carbonic hydrogen is evolved; and towards the end it becomes entirely white,—a circumstance owing, probably, to the furnace being more heated at this period, and the combustion being more complete. There is still another means of knowing the state of the process, to which recourse is more frequently had; that is the cooling of the first tubes, which are not surrounded with water: a few drops of this fluid are thrown upon their surface, and if they evaporate quietly, it is judged that the calcination is sufficient. The adopter tube is then unluted, and is slid into its junction pipe; the orifices are immediately stopped with plates of iron and plaster loam. The brick cover, E, of the furnace is first removed by means of the swing crane, then the cylinder itself is lifted out and replaced immediately by another one previously charged. When the cylinder which has been taken out of the furnace is entirely cooled, its cover is removed, and the charcoal is emptied. Five cubic meters of wood furnish about 7 chaldrons (voies) and a half of charcoal. (For modifications of the wood-vinegar apparatus, see Charcoal and Pyrolignous Acid.)

The different qualities of wood employed in this operation give nearly similar product in reference to the acid; but this is not the case with the charcoal, for it is better the harder the wood; and it has been remarked, that wood long exposed to the air furnishes a charcoal of a worse quality than wood carbonised soon after it is cut.

Having described the kind of apparatus employed to obtain pyrolignous acid, I shall now detail the best mode of purifying it. This acid has a reddish brown colour; it holds in solution a portion of empyreumatic oil and of the tar which were formed at the same time; another portion of these products is in the state of a simple mixture; the latter may be separated by repose alone. It is stated, above, that the distilling apparatus terminates in a subterranean reservoir, where the products of all the vessels are mixed. A common pump communicates with the reservoir, and sinks to its very bottom, in order that it may draw off only the stratum of tar, which, according to its greater density, occupies the lower part. From time to time the pump is worked to remove the tar as it is deposited. The reservoir has at its top an overflow pipe, which discharges the clearest acid into a cistern, from which it is taken by means of a second pump.

The pyrolignous acid thus separated from the undissolved tar is transferred from this cistern into large sheet iron boilers, where its saturation is effected either by quicklime or by chalk; the latter of which is preferable, as the lime is apt to take some of the tar into combination. The acid parts by saturation with a new portion of the tar, which is removed by skimmers. The neutral solution is then allowed to rest for a sufficient time to let its clear parts be drawn off by decantation.

The acetate of lime thus obtained indicates by the hydrometer, before being mixed with the waters of edulcoration, a degree corresponding to the acidimetric degree of the acid employed. This solution must be evaporated till it reaches a specific gravity of 1·114 (15° Baumé), after which there is added to it a saturated solution of sulphate of soda. The acids exchange bases; sulphate of lime precipitates, and acetate of soda remains in solution. In some manufactures, instead of pursuing the above plan, the sulphate of soda is dissolved in the hot pyrolignous acid, which is afterwards saturated with chalk or lime. By this means no water need be employed to dissolve the sulphate, and accordingly the liquor is obtained in a concentrated form without evaporation. In both modes the sulphate of lime is allowed to settle, and the solution of acetate of soda is decanted. The residuum is set aside to be edulcorated, and the last waters are employed for washing fresh portions.

The acetate of soda which results from this double decomposition is afterwards evaporated till it attains to the density of 1·225 or 1·23, according to the season. This solution is poured into large crystallising vessels, from which, at the end of 3 or 4 days, according to their capacity, the mother waters are decanted, and a first crystallisation is obtained of rhomboidal prisms, which are highly coloured and very bulky. Their facettes are finely polished, and their edges very sharp. The mother waters are submitted to successive evaporations and crystallisations till they refuse to crystallise, and they are then burnt to convert them into carbonate of soda.

To avoid guesswork proportions, which are always injurious, by the loss of time which they occasion, and by the bad results to which they often lead, we should determine experimentally, beforehand, the quantities absolutely necessary for the reciprocal decomposition, especially when we change the acid or the sulphate. But it may be remarked that, notwithstanding all the precautions we can take, there is always a notable quantity of sulphate of soda and acetic acid, which disappear totally in this decomposition. This arises from the circumstance that sulphate of soda and acetate of lime do not completely decompose each other, as I have ascertained by experiments on a very considerable scale; and thus a portion of each of them is always lost with the mother waters. It might be supposed that by calcining the acetate of lime we could completely destroy its empyreumatic oil; but, though I have made many experiments, with this view I never could obtain an acetate capable of affording a tolerable acid. Some manufacturers prefer to make the acetate of soda by direct saturation of the acid with the alkali, and think that the higher price of this substance is compensated by the economy of time and fuel which it produces.

The acetate of soda is easily purified by crystallisations and torrefaction; the latter process, when well conducted, freeing it completely from every particle of tar. This torrefaction, to which the name of fusion may be given, requires great care and dexterity. It is usually done in shallow cast iron boilers of a hemispherical shape. During all the time that the heat of about 500° Fahr. is applied, the fused mass must be diligently worked with rakes; an operation which continues about 24 hours for half a ton of materials. We must carefully avoid raising the temperature so high as to decompose the acetate, and be sure that the heat is equally distributed; for if any point of the mass enters into decomposition, it is propagated with such rapidity, as to be excessively difficult to stop its progress in destroying the whole. The heat should never be so great as to disengage any smoke, even when the whole acetate is liquefied. When there is no more frothing up, and the mass flows like oil, the operation is finished. It is now