of ideas you had in mind, or summaries of your lessons in history or geography. You have now come to a point in your education where it will be well for you to take up composition as a separate subject, studying it as you would geography or history. Let us begin by asking ourselves what it is. What is composition?

What geography and history are, it is easy to see. Geography is the subject that has to do with the world as a place. We learn the names that men have given to the parts of the world, large and small; and, with regard to each country, what are its climate and the nature of its soil, its products and manufactures, its cities, and mountains, and rivers. History is the subject that has to do with the actions of the inhabitants of the world. We learn what were the chief nations that have existed or still exist, what were the important events that took place in each nation, as time went on, and who were the great men that shaped its destinies. Any one who knew about all the main events in the life of all the great nations would be a very learned person indeed; but you have already read or studied some very important things in the history of Greece or Rome, or the United States, and thus have a general idea of the history of one or more of these nations.

Since the beginning of time men have been talking to one another, and many thousand years ago they found a way of communicating with one another by written signs or letters; and not so many hundred years ago they discovered printing, which enables one person to communicate with many people in different places at the same time. All over the world, then, people are speaking words or writing words, and other people are hearing or reading these words and trying to understand the thoughts intended to be expressed by them. We have various words to express combinations of spoken or written words, such as talk or conversation, speech, oration, address, lecture, sermon, letter, telegram, essay, novel, poem, and very many others.

Now, it is obvious that a person may wish to express his ideas and yet not be successful in doing so. Words may be combined so as to express thoughts well or to express them badly. Composition is the subject that has to do with the best expression of thought by language.

But how, then, does composition differ from grammar? Grammar is really a part—a small part—of composition. Each language has certain customs with regard to the forms which words have under various circumstances, and to the order in which the parts of a sentence are placed, as well as a system of names for different kinds of words and sentences and parts of sentences. This body of customs or rules we call grammar. But grammar takes into account mainly the form of a sentence, and pays little or no attention to its meaning. Composition, on the other hand, deals mainly with words as expressions of thought.

In our study of composition, then, we are to learn how to combine or group our words so as best to express our ideas. There are three ways of gaining skill in composition:—

1. By following a rule or theory.
2. By practice.
3. By imitation.

There are certain rules in composition which are based on the experience of many writers and speakers. These you will learn as we go on. These rules will not be of very much value to you, however, unless you put them into practice. If you want to learn how to swim, you can get the general idea from a friend or a teacher; but that general idea will not enable you to swim. You must learn to swim by swimming. In the same way, you must learn composition by composing. Keep trying to express your ideas; let your teachers and friends tell you how clearly they understand you, take their criticism to heart, and try again.

The third way to learn composition is by imitation, and that is a very good way indeed. When you think that some one else writes well, try to write like him or her. Imitation is the greatest possible help in learning how to do anything well.

CHAPTER II

THE SENTENCE

1. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences.—Composition means putting together or combining or grouping. The things that we combine are words. There are three simple ways in which, according to the customs or grammar of our language, words are combined:—

1. Into phrases.
2. Into clauses.
3. Into sentences.

A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a predicate.

Examples. On the way. In the morning. By the fire. Sailing over the sea.

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause in which the words do not make complete sense is called a dependent or subordinate clause.

Examples. If I could go. When the sun rose. While I was speaking. Which I saw.

A sentence is a group of words containing at least one subject and one predicate and making complete sense. A sentence is thus a single clause or a group of clauses. In a group of clauses, a clause in which the sense is complete is called an independent or principal clause.

Examples. He started at once. If I could, I should start at once. When the sun rose, the mist disappeared. While I was speaking, the rain fell heavily.

Neither the phrase nor the dependent clause can be used by itself. Each is only a part of a sentence. The first rule of English composition is that we must group our words in sentences.

Exception. Exclamatory words, phrases, or clauses, such as, Fudge! Silence in the ranks! If I could only go!

Exercise 1.—Which are dependent clauses? phrases? sentences? Fill out the phrases and clauses so that they become sentences.

1. A little after noon. 2. I found the sea very calm. 3. If we had kept on board. 4. We should have been all safe. 5. Taking off my outer clothes. 6. When I came to the ship. 7. How to get on board. 8. I spied a small piece of rope. 9. By the help of that rope. 10. That all the ship's provisions were dry. 11. When this was done. 12. Putting them together in the form of a raft. 13. I filled the chests with provisions. 14. Toward the land. 15. My raft went very well. 16. In the mouth of a little river. 17. On the right shore of the creek. 18. I made a tent with the sail. 19. Near the sea. 20. Protected from the heat of the sun.

Exercise 2.—Divide the following passages into sentences. Supply the omitted capitals and the periods or question marks.

1. How late the chimney-swifts are abroad I cannot determine long after I failed to detect any in the air I could hear them in my chimney it was the same rustling sound I heard by day when I could see them coming and going and I know that these birds were leaving and returning when the night was very dark I think they can be classed among the nocturnal species

2. Many years ago there was a cold rain-storm in June for comfort a fire was built on the open hearth instead of in the air-tight stove that stood before it all went well until the night was well advanced suddenly a struggle was heard and suppressed cries after a brief silence there was a shuffling of feet at the doorstep the men went out with a lantern but no one was to be seen the windows were then searched but there was nobody near them the matter